The Greek and Latin Roots of English

The G r e e k & L at i n R o o t s of E n g l i s h

F I F T H

E D I T I O N

The G r e e k & L at i n R o o t s of E n g l i s h

Tamara M. Green

ROW M A N & L I T T L E F I E L D

Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • London

Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 16 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BT, United Kingdom Copyright © 2015 by Rowman & Littlefield First edition 1990. Second edition 1994. Third edition 2003. Fourth edition 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Green, Tamara Marcus, 1944– author. The Greek & Latin roots of English / Tamara M. Green. — Fifth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4422-3327-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4422-3328-7 (electronic) 1. English language—Foreign elements—Greek. 2. English language—Foreign elements—Latin. 3. Greek language—Influence on English. 4. Latin language—Influence on English. 5. English language—Roots. I. Title. II. Title: Greek and Latin roots of English. PE1582.G6G74 2014 422'.48—dc23 2014008859 ™

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/ NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

Contents

Preface xi

1. A Polyglot Stew (Or Food for Thought) 1 I’m So Hungry! 2 What Shall We Have for Dinner? 2 2. Language and History 5 Language Families 6 The Branches of the Indo-European Tree 9 A Brief History of English 10 An Outline of the History of the English Language 16 And What Is More 18 Some Useful Terms 19 Exercises 23 3. How Latin Works 27 Inflected Languages 28 Latin Nouns and Adjectives 29 Finding the Stem of a Latin Noun or Adjective 31 Latin Verbs 31 Conjugations 32 Finding the Stem of a Latin Verb 32 Some Very Useful Latin Verbs 34 Exercises 37

CONTENTS

4. Latin into English 43 Forming New Words 44 I. Adjective-Forming Suffixes Used with Latin Noun Stems 44 II. Noun-Forming Suffixes Used with Latin Nouns and Adjectives 45 III. Diminutive-Forming Suffixes with Latin Nouns 46 IV. Nouns and Adjectives Formed from Latin Verbs 46 V. Verbal Suffixes 50 VI. Verbal Learned Borrowings 51 Exercises 55 5. How Greek Works 61 The Greek Alphabet 62 Rules for Transliterating Greek Words into English 63 Cognates 65 Exercises 67 6. Greek into English 71 Greek Suffixes 72 I. Adjective-Forming Suffixes 72 II. Noun-Forming Suffixes 72 III. Learned Borrowings 74 Exercises 75 7. Latin and Greek Prefixes 79 I. Latin Prepositions 80 II. Greek Prepositions 82 III. Prefixes Derived from Greek and Latin Adjectives and Adverbs 83 Exercises 87 8. Latin and Greek Numbers 93 Countdown 94 Latin Numbers 94 Greek Numbers 97 Exercises 101

CONTENTS

9. Government and Politics 105 Greek Politics 106 Roman Politics 107 Governmental Bureaucracy 109 The Law 112 War and Peace 113 Exercises 115 10. Psychology 119 Modern Theories of Psychology 120 Ancient Psychological Theory 121 Love and Marriage 122 States of Feeling 123 The Four Humors 124 Star Wars 125 Science and the Human Mind 126 Exercises 129 11. The Social Sciences 135 Theory and Practice 136 Anthropology 136 Sociology 137 Economics 138 Exercises 143 12. Human Biology and Medicine I 147 Modern Medicine and Ancient Terminology 148 The Human Body 148 Medical Specialties 150 Diagnosis and Treatment 152 To Sleep, Perchance to Dream 154 Exercises 159

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CONTENTS

13. Human Biology and Medicine II 165 Advanced Medical Training 166 The Circulatory System 166 The Respiratory System 166 The Digestive System 167 The Reproductive System 169 The Endocrine System 169 More Useful Beginnings and Endings 171 Exercises 173 14. Science and Mathematics 177 Ancient and Modern Science 178 The Biological Sciences 178 Astronomy 184 Chemistry 186 Physics 190 Geology 192 Geography 194 Meteorology 195 Mathematics 196 Islamic Science 198 Exercises 199 15. It’s an Academic Question 207 Greek and Roman Education 208 Books and Libraries 211 Exercises 215 16. The Classical Influence 219 Europe and the Classical Heritage 220 The Fine Arts 220 City Planning 222 Literature 223 Theater 224 Music 226 Athletics, Competition, and Excellence 227 Exercises 231

CONTENTS

17. Myth, Religion, and Philosophy 235 Greek and Roman Religion and Myth 236 The Greek and Roman Gods 236 The Calendar 238 Other Times . . . 239 Other Places . . . 239 Troy 244 Ancient Peoples and Places 246 Philosophy 248 The Language of Christianity 250 Exercises 251 18. Lingua Latina Etiam Vivit! (The Latin Language Still Lives!) 255 Exercises 261

Greek Vocabulary 265 Latin Vocabulary 273 About the Author 283

Preface

“Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone.” Ralph Waldo Emerson’s words are a recognition that the development of language and the ways in which we use it have been, in large measure, historically and culturally determined. But it is also true that not only do individuals and cultures shape language but language shapes us; the way we speak and what we say define us and allow us to articulate our worldview. Ideas take on life only when we can give them expression, and one of the ways by which we do this is through our ability to use language. The more adept we are at this, the greater are our opportunities to explore and create and interpret the variety of our experiences. Because language is a social product, it is constantly changing, not only structurally, but in the very meaning of words. No language perhaps offers a better opportunity to understand linguistic change than English, especially in the realm of vocabulary. English has absorbed vocabulary from other languages, but as a result of both the accidents of history and the great esteem in which ancient Greek and Roman culture had been held in the European tradition, over 60 percent of all English words have Greek or Latin roots; in the vocabulary of the sciences and technology, the figure rises to over 90 percent. Thus, through the study of the Greek and Latin roots of English, students not only can expand their knowledge of English vocabulary, but also come to understand the ways in which the history of the English language have shaped our perceptions of the world around us. The approach of this text is thematic: vocabulary is organized into various topics, including politics and government, psychology, medicine and the biological sciences, literature, ancient culture, and religion and philosophy. Unlike those textbooks that treat Latin and Greek roots separately, these lessons present the two vocabularies as an organic whole. Thus, the emphasis is placed on language and the way in which it has developed and changed, rather than on single words, or even groups of words.

xii

PREFACE

The exercises at the end of each chapter are cumulative, reinforcing both vocabulary already learned and analytical skills developed in previous lessons. In addition to teaching vocabulary skills, the text has another, perhaps more subtle, aim. It is hoped that through the study of the Greek and Latin roots of English, students will begin to learn the pleasures (and pitfalls) of language study. The original development of the materials for this text was made possible by a grant to Hunter College from the National Endowment for the Humanities. N E W M AT E R I A L I N T H E F I F T H E D I T I O N

The fifth edition has retained the organizational and thematic approach of the earlier editions. New material and exercises have been added to all chapters. H OW T O U S E T H I S T E X T

1. In the vocabulary, both the nominative and genitive cases are given for all Latin nouns and adjectives. The principal parts of Latin verbs are also given. 2. An English word followed by Greek in parentheses indicates that the word is Greek in origin. 3. Because most words in English that are derived from Greek are learned borrowings, the genitive case of a noun or adjective is rarely cited, unless the compound form of the word is derived from that case. 4. Vocabulary words are sometimes repeated in different chapters when necessary. 5. Vocabulary words are generally listed in alphabetical order.

Symbols and Abbreviations Used Symbol or Abbreviation

Meaning

= > < cf. e.g.

English meaning from which is derived derived from compare for example

PREFACE

xiii

Instructor’s Manual An Instructor’s Manual is available to adopters of this text. It contains: Answers to all the exercises in the text Quizzes on each chapter Two final examinations Answers to all quizzes and final examinations Supplementary exercises, including answers Suggested English derivatives for chapters 3–8

Photographs All photographs, unless otherwise attributed, are from the author’s private collection.

1 A P o ly g l o t S t e w < (Or Food for Thought)

Child with a goose (Museo Capitolino, Rome)

When you cook a crane, make sure that the head does not touch the water, but is outside it. When it has been cooked, wrap it in a warm cloth and pull its head. APICIUS (first-century CE Roman gourmet)

CHAPTER 1

I ’ M S O H U N G RY !

If, in fact, we are what we eat, the American people are the most cosmopolitan nation in the world. Just as the English language is a mixture of Germanic, Latin, and Greek roots with a heavy seasoning of the Romance languages, with just a dash of Native American, African, and Caribbean, and a sprinkling of Asian vocabulary, so does our diet reflect the various linguistic ingredients that go into the melting pot of American cuisine. The Normans conquered England in 1066 CE, and introduced, via French, Latin-based names for various foods; nevertheless, although English tastes and vocabulary were about to be expanded, the Germanic contribution to the English menu did not disappear. For example, Middle English mete made peace with the Old French boef, thus allowing both meat and beef on the dinner table, while the Germanic-based chiken nested quite comfortably with the French poulet. And if the English seemed to have lost their appetite after the Norman Conquest, the French tempted their palates with the introduction of such foods as salmon, rice, and carrots. French pain, however, never replaced Old English bread. Perhaps they found that too painful to contemplate. The Normans may have introduced the English to the finer points of French cookery, but the spread of the British Empire introduced the English language to a host of new tastes from Asia, Africa, and North America. In turn, the extraordinary ethnic diversity of the United States has added its own linguistic flavors to American cuisine. W H A T S H A L L W E H AV E F O R D I N N E R ?

We can eat geographically, as it were, starting off with some Latin-based wine, Gaelic whiskey, or Russian vodka. The German cities of Hamburg and Frankfort give us two staples of the American diet, whose flavor we can enhance with Chinese ketchup, French mustard, or a Dutch pickle. Or would you prefer Italian pasta: linguini, perhaps, or spaghetti, topped with some cheese from Parma, Italy? If we want to add a little spice to our lives, we can always order a curry at our local Indian restaurant, or call the neighborhood pizzeria. Of course, a well-balanced diet needs a French salad filled with native and imported vegetables: the Native Americans of North and South America can provide tomatoes, potatoes, squash, and avocados, while the Arabs will contribute spinach. We can add a classical touch with onions, lettuce, and peas; even the lowly radish also has a Latin root. And what is dinner without dessert? Some fruit, perhaps: an orange from Persia, or a banana from West Africa, or a much-traveled apricot, which passed from Latin into Arabic and then returned into Portuguese before making its way onto the English

A P O LY G L O T S T E W

menu. If we crave something sweeter, however, what could be more American than apple pie? Or would you prefer some Central American chocolate, German cake or a pretzel, or perhaps a Dutch cookie? And you can wash it all down with some coffee from Turkey, or all the tea in China. Vocabulary appetite < Latin verb appeto = seek, desire apple < Old English aeppel; cf. German apfel apricot < the original form of the word in English, aprico*ck, from the Portuguese albricoque, which, in turn, came from the Arabic al birquq. The Arabic word, however, was a transliteration of a Latin adjective, praecoquum (early ripening), a term that could be applied to any fruit. avocado < Spanish aguacate (< Nahuatl ahuacatl = testicl*) beef < Old French boef (< Latin bos, bovis = cow); cf. Modern French boeuf bread < Old English bread; cf. German brot, but Latin panis > French pain, Italian pane, Spanish pan cake < Middle English kake; cf. Icelandic kaka, German kuchen, Dutch coek. Cookie is a diminutive form of coek. carrot < French carotte (< Latin carota < Greek karoton) cheese < Latin caseus chicken < Germanic chiken chocolate < Nahuatl chocolatl coffee < Turkish kahve (< Arabic qahwah) cf. French café (coffee shop), and cafeteria cuisine = French kitchen; cookery curry < Tamil kari (sauce) dessert < French desservir (to clear the table) fruit < Latin fruor = enjoy lettuce < Latin lactuca meat < Old English mete menu = French detailed list (< Latin minutus = small) onion < Latin unio (pearl) palate < Latin palatum = roof of the mouth pasta < Latin pasta (dough) (< Greek pastos = sprinkled). Originally, pasta was a kind of porridge sprinkled with salt. pea < Latin pisum (cf. Italian pisello, French pois) pie < Middle English pie (shallow pit) < Old French puis < Latin puleus (well) pizza < Italian pizza < derivation unclear, but perhaps Latin placenta (cake)

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potato < Spanish patata (< Taino batata) poultry < Middle French poulet (< Latin pullus = young of any animal); cf. Spanish and Italian pollo pretzel < German bretzel (< Latin bracellus = bracelet) radish < Old English raedic (< Latin radix = root) restaurant < Latin restauro (restore) rice < Old French ris (< Italian riso< Greek oryzon (rice) salad < French salade < Latin salata (salted) salmon < Latin salmon, salmonis = salmon spaghetti < Italian spago (cord, rope) linguini < Latin lingua (tongue) spinach < Old Spanish espinaca (< Arabic isfanakh) squash < Narragansett Native American askutasquash (“thing eaten green”) tea < Chinese t’e (Amoy dialect); the more common Chinese word is the Mandarin ch’a. tomato < Spanish tomate (< Aztec tomatl) vegetable < Latin vegēo (grow) vodka < Russian voda (water) whiskey < Gaelic usqebaugh (“the water of life”) wine < Latin vinum (cf. French vin, and Italian and Spanish vino) Note: A polyglot is someone who speaks many languages. You will learn the roots of this word very shortly.

2 L a n g u ag e a n d H i s t o ry

Barry Blitt New Yorker cover (© Barry Blitt)

And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech . . . and they said, “Come let us build us a city, and a tower, with its top in heaven, and let us make us a name; lest we be scattered upon the face of the whole earth.” And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men built. And the Lord said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is what they begin to do; and now nothing will be witholden from them, which they purpose to do. Come let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another’s speech.” So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of the earth; and they left off to build the city.Therefore was the name of it called Babel, because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth. GENESIS 11:1–9 (King James Version)

CHAPTER 2

L A N G UAG E F A M I L I E S

Language is a human activity, and like all human activities, it seems to have infinite variability. It is estimated that there are between 2,900 and nearly 10,000 living languages in the world.1 Nevertheless, despite that variability, it is possible to distinguish the patterns and relationships of these languages to one another. As a result, they have been classified into families, the members of which are considered by linguists to be related because of similarities in structure, grammar, phonology, and vocabulary. Yet, like every other kind of human activity, language is subject to change; and many languages have disappeared or evolved into other languages over the centuries. For example, Latin is no longer spoken, but it survives through its direct descendants, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Other ancient languages survive only in written form, and still others have disappeared without a trace because they were not written down, and their speakers were absorbed into other populations. What Were They Saying? What was the first language? Philosophers and linguists, kings and theologians have debated this question for several thousand years. Early Christian scholars maintained that the language spoken in the Garden of Eden was Hebrew, while an eighteenthcentury Swedish clergyman jokingly suggested that in the Garden, God spoke Swedish, Adam spoke Danish, and the serpent who tempted Eve spoke French.

The major families, or trees, of human languages have many branches.

Sino-Tibetan Most languages spoken in China belong to the Sinitic branch of this family. There are more than a billion speakers of the eight varieties of Chinese that are regarded by some linguists as separate languages, united only by a common writing system. More than 300 languages in the Tibeto-Burman branch are spoken in parts of Burma, Tibet, Thailand,Vietnam, and Laos.

1. Estimates of the number of languages vary because of the question of what constitutes a distinct language (as opposed to dialect) and because many languages exist only in spoken form. According to the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Languages, over 22,000 names of languages, living and dead, have been recorded. According to the Cambridge Encyclopedia, there are, however, only 10 languages that have over 100 million speakers: Chinese (over one billion); English (750 million, including those countries that count English as an official language); Hindi (490 million); Spanish (420 million); Russian (255 million); Arabic (230 million); Bengali (215 million); Portuguese (213 million); German (129 million); and Japanese (127 million). These figures do not include non-native speakers of these languages and are all, of course, approximate.

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic) The Afro-Asiatic family includes over 250 languages that are spoken in North Africa and southwest Asia.The Semitic languages, which include Arabic and Hebrew, as well as many of the languages of the ancient Near East, constitute the largest branch of this family. Among other languages belonging to this family are nearly 175 that are spoken in North Africa, including Amharic (the official language of Ethiopia) and Hausa, the primary language of more than 25 million people in West Africa.

Austro-Asiatic There are three branches and over 100 languages that belong to the Austro-Asiatic family spread across southeast Asia. The largest of these branches is Mon-Khmer, which includes the languages of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and parts of Burma and Malaysia.

Dravidian The Dravidian family is composed of more than seventy languages spoken primarily in southern and eastern India, although speakers are found as far away as southern and eastern regions of Africa. Although the vast majority of the population of India speaks languages that belong to the Indo-European family, the Dravidian languages are spoken by more than 230 million people. Tamil is the most diffuse, with 50 million speakers in India, Pakistan, Malaysia, and Indonesia, as well as other areas of the Indian and South Pacific Oceans.

Niger-Congo It is estimated that there are between 1,000 and 3,000 languages spoken in Africa by over 400 million people,2 but fewer than 5 percent have more than a million speakers. The largest African language family is the Niger-Congo group, which encompasses about a thousand languages, and several thousand dialects. Within this family are the approximately 700 languages belonging to the Benue-Congo branch, which includes more than 500 Bantu languages, among them Swahili, Rwanda, Khongo, Xhosa, and Zulu. Since there is such an extraordinary diversity of African languages, Swahili or Arabic is often used as a lingua franca.3

2. The difficulty in calculating the number of languages spoken in Africa is due to the fact that many either are isolated geographically or have no writing systems to record them. 3. A lingua franca is any language that is used as a means of communication among speakers of different languages that are mutually incomprehensible.

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Uralic The two branches of the Uralic family are the Finno-Ugric languages, spoken in central and northern Europe (including Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, and Lapp), and the much smaller group of Samoyedic languages that are spoken by perhaps 30,000 people scattered across Siberia and the Arctic.

Altaic The geographical distribution of the Altaic languages ranges from the Balkan Peninsula to Central Asia, and includes over forty languages that are divided into three groups: Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu. The largest group, Turkic, includes Turkish, Uighur (whose speakers are found mainly in China), and the languages of Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. Although Korean and Japanese share some similarities with other members of this family, the connections have not been determined precisely.

Caucasian The region of the Caucasus Mountains, between the Caspian and Black Seas, contains the highest concentration of languages in the world; although smaller in area than Great Britain, more than twenty different languages are spoken there, but only Georgian has more than a million speakers. Because this region formed part of the former Soviet Union, the vocabulary of these languages has been heavily influenced by Russian.

North and South American Languages At the time of the arrival of Europeans, there were perhaps 300 languages spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of North America. More than half of these have disappeared, with fewer than 300,000 speakers of these languages still remaining. In South and Central America, there are approximately 11 million speakers of Amerindian languages. Among these is Quechua (the official language of the Incas and spoken by more than 6 million people). There once may have been as many as 2,000 languages spoken in South America. Who Are You? There are also some languages that are called “orphans” or “isolates,” single languages that seem to bear no relationship with any other, such as Ainu, a now nearly extinct language spoken in areas of Japan but unrelated to Japanese, or Basque, the language of the inhabitants of the Pyrenees region of Spain and France.

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

T H E B R A N C H E S O F T H E I N D O - E U RO P E A N T R E E

The largest and most widely diffused of these language families is Indo-European, with over 2 billion speakers around the world. Of course the origins of all language families are difficult to pin down with any certainty, but historical and comparative linguists have constructed a model that would explain most fully the development of the Indo-European tree and the growth of its various branches. They posit a common ancestor of these languages that they label as Proto-Indo-European (PIE), a language thought to be spoken by a people living in what is now southwestern Russia and Kazakhstan about 6,000 years ago. As this population spread out in all directions, PIE evolved into dialects and then into mutually incomprehensible languages, but their common source could be established through similarities in grammatical structure and vocabulary. Here’s an example: English brother

Sanskrit bhrata

Persian buradar

Russian brat

Greek phrater

Latin frater

Linguists have classified the surviving branches of the Indo-European family as follows: Indic Hindi Punjabi

Bengali Romany

Gujarati Marathi Sinhalese Urdu

Oriya Sanskrit*4

Iranian Baluchi

Kurdish

Pashto

Avestan*

Italic Latin* > Italian

French

Spanish Portuguese Romanian

Hellenic Ancient Greek* >

Medieval Greek* >

Germanic German Dutch Danish Icelandic Anglo-Saxon (Old English)* >

Farsi (Persian)

Modern Greek

Afrikaans Flemish Yiddish Norwegian Swedish Middle English* > Modern English

4. An asterisk indicates that the language is no longer spoken although it may survive in written form. The sacred writings of many religions around the world sometimes preserve languages that are no longer spoken. For example, the Vedas, sacred texts of the Hindu religion, are preserved in Sanskrit.

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Balto-Slavonic Russian Belorussian Latvian Lithuanian Czech Polish Slovak Slovene Celtic Breton Gaelic Manx* Cornish*

Irish Scots

Welsh

Survivors, or Against All Odds Some branches of the Indo-European tree have withered and disappeared; others, such as Armenian and Albanian, survive as a single offshoot. Yes, languages die too, like individuals.They may decompose into fine dust or a heap of bones from which it is difficult to reconstruct the image of the living organism that was once there. They may be embalmed and preserved for posterity, changeless and static, lifelike in appearance but unendowed with the breath of life.While they live, however, they change. —MARIO PEI, The Story of Language

A B R I E F H I S T O RY O F E N G L I S H

Although English is classified as belonging to the Germanic branch of the IndoEuropean tree because of its structure, grammar, and basic vocabulary, it has been strongly influenced, through the accidents of history and politics, by other IndoEuropean languages, most notably Latin and its offshoots, the Romance languages, and, to a lesser extent, Greek.

Latin and the Power of Rome At the height of its power in the second century CE, the Roman Empire extended from the Euphrates River in the East to Britain in the West. Everywhere in Europe and North Africa that the Romans went, they brought with them not only soldiers and government officials, but also their language; and therefore, in order to do business with the ruling powers, one had to learn at least a little Latin. Over several centuries, the Latin spoken in the provinces often became mixed with the local languages, out of which evolved the foundations of at least some of the languages spoken in Europe today. By the fifth century CE, the Roman Empire had begun to disintegrate, as a series of invaders, mostly Germanic, began to carve out sections of the empire as their own. In 410 CE, the Roman army withdrew from Britain, leaving the island to its Celtic inhabitants and those Latin-speaking missionaries who had come to convert them to Christianity. But less than forty years later, beginning in 449 CE, southern Britain

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

was overrun by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, all Germanic tribes from the mainland of Europe.

Anglo-Saxon Culture and Old English The culture and language of these Germanic peoples are called Anglo-Saxon; and within a relatively short period of time, they had become the dominant political and linguistic power in Britain, as the Celts fled west into Ireland and Wales. Although Latin had all but disappeared as a spoken language, its influence could be seen in place names: -chester, as in Dorchester, and –caster, as in Lancaster, which derive from the Latin castra, a military camp. And when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity in 597 CE, Latin was reintroduced, as the language of the Church. The greatest work of Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, literature is the epic poem Beowulf, whose opening lines show how much English has changed in 1,500 years: Hwæt, we gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon!5

The Norman Conquest and Middle English The language spoken in England would have remained basically Germanic in its vocabulary, grammar, and structure, had it not been for an accident of politics and genealogy. In 1066 CE, Edward, king of England, died without an heir; and the Anglo-Saxon nobles elected Harold, who was not related to Edward, as their king. But perhaps out of family loyalty, perhaps out of a desire for more power, William, ruler of Normandy, whose wife was related to Edward, challenged Harold’s right to the throne. William and his army invaded Britain, and at the battle of Hastings, Harold was defeated and killed. On Christmas Day, 1066 CE, William, now called the Conqueror, was crowned King of England and Normandy. William brought with him a new ruling class, made up of French-speaking Normans,6 who imposed their politics, customs, and language on the Anglo-Saxons. And just as those who had wanted to do business with the Romans had had to learn Latin, so 5. “Behold! We of the spear Danes from old times Of the people kings’ glory have heard How the princes deeds of valor performed.” 6. Who were the Normans? Actually, in their origins they were also Germanic, having come from Scandinavia (which is why they were called Northmen, or Normans) in the ninth century to settle in France. But they had so thoroughly adapted to the language and customs of the people that within a very short period of time they had abandoned their original language for French and given their name to that region of northwest France.

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those who wanted to be accepted by the Norman power structure had to learn French. For nearly 150 years, French was the language of government, law, and religion. In the thirteenth century, however, as relations deteriorated between England and France, the use of English increasingly became an expression of nationalism; and English began once more to reassert itself. Nevertheless, in part because of the influence of French, in part because all languages change over time, it was radically different from the AngloSaxon of Beowulf. Thousands of new vocabulary words had been added to English either from French, a Latin-based language, or directly from Latin, with the result that today English contains twice as many words derived from French and Latin as from German. This newly evolved form is called Middle English, and although it is difficult for a speaker of modern English to read easily, it contains many recognizable forms and words, as the opening lines of Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales demonstrates: Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour.7

Modern English Like Old and Middle English, Modern English has been shaped by a number of historical, political, and social events: the European Renaissance and the rebirth of interest in ancient Greek and Roman literature and culture, the development of modern science and technology, British colonialism, and the founding of the United States. But perhaps the greatest single influence on the formation of Modern English was the printing press, whose invention is generally credited to the German Johannes Gutenberg (d. 1468), and which was introduced into England by William Caxton in 1476. This invention led not only to the standardization of spelling,8 usage, and pronunciation, but was instrumental in the growth of literacy, and in the increase in the number of schools. It is not surprising, then, that speech became an indication of social class. Although Latin and Greek continued to be held in high esteem because of the renewed interest in the heritage of the classical tradition, the Renaissance and the

7. “When April with its sweet showers The drought of March has pierced to the root, and bathed every vein in such moisture by whose quickening force is engendered the flower.” 8. The attempt to standardize English spelling had unintended consequences, for although the spelling of a word might become fixed, its pronunciation changed over time. As a result, many words now contain letters that are no longer pronounced, e.g., thought or weigh. On the other hand, the letter b was added to the spelling of the word debt because it was derived from the Latin verb debeo (owe).

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

rise of the modern nation-state saw the growth of vernacular9 literatures throughout Europe. Increasingly, it was maintained by many that the English language could be employed as effectively as Latin or Greek to express serious thought. After all, as a sixteenth-century English scholar pointed out, the ancient Greeks wrote in Greek, the Romans composed in Latin, and thus it was only natural that the English should employ their own native tongue. At the same time, however, there was the recognition on the part of at least some writers and scholars of a need for a greatly enriched English vocabulary. The coinage of new vocabulary by authors in this period added more than 10,000 new words to the language; ironically, the vast majority derived from Latin and Greek roots. Not all of these newly minted words, however, entered into popular usage, and some did not survive. Not all of the new words were adapted from Latin or Greek.The argument among sixteenth-century scholars about the “purity” of English vocabulary grew more heated as diplomacy and trade broadened the possibility of linguistic interchange. Although as a matter of national pride vehement objections were raised about the introduction of Italian, French, and Spanish words into English vocabulary, many words, such as vogue, essay, bizarre, piazza, mustache, gazette, and bravado, found a permanent place. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the development of modern science, which also added thousands of new vocabulary words to English, was grounded, at least in part, in the view that all activity, including language, could be explained logically and rationally. The focus on standardization of language and usage also produced an increased interest in etymology, or the history of individual words, as a way of determining the precise meaning of words and their correct usage. In 1755, Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) published A Dictionary of the English Language, which contained 40,000 words and their definitions, pronunciations, and varied usages. Its intent, he said, was “to reserve the purity and ascertain the meaning of our English idiom.” Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary was a landmark in the history of English lexicography, and marked the first methodical attempt to establish a standard English vocabulary. During the eighteenth century, there was also the attempt to regularize English grammar and syntax. Although the scientist Joseph Priestley argued that “the custom of speaking is the original and only just standard for any language,” most grammarians subscribed to Dr. Johnson’s insistence that “every language must be formed after the model of one of the ancient.” And as a result, they transposed the rules of Latin grammar onto English, despite the fact that at least a few scholars recognized that Latin grammar was not particularly well suited as a model for English. With the growth of the British Empire, beginning in the seventeenth century, politics once again played a role in the history of the English language. Not only did 9. Vernacular is the language that is native to a country, but it is also a term to describe ordinary, or everyday, language as opposed to literary language and expression.

CHAPTER 2

the native languages of North America, Africa, and Asia contribute large numbers of words to English (such as moccasin, jungle, hurricane, and tobacco), but also colonialism led to the spread of the use of English around the world. By the mid-nineteenth century, the recognition that both the addition of “new” words to English vocabulary and the intricate history of the English language demanded a new kind of dictionary gave impetus to the monumental project that is known as the Oxford English Dictionary.10 Begun in 1879, under the editorship of James Murray, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was not completed until 1928. Consisting of twelve volumes, it not only gave the various definitions and usages, but detailed the history of each of the over 400,000 entries. Successive teams of lexicographers have produced several supplements, and the OED now extends to twenty volumes and contains over 500,000 items. The differences between a dialect and a language are a matter of great debate among linguists, since there is no accepted criterion for making any distinction between the two. The simplest definition is that it is a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers. But who gets to determine what is “standard” and what is a “variety” is often a matter of politics, history, and social structure. As an old joke goes, “a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.”

American English England and America are two countries separated by the same language. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW (early twentieth-century playwright and critic)

Like the general history of English, the history of American English can be divided into periods. The earliest, and most influential, began with the first permanent English-speaking settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 and ended with the establishment of the United States as an independent country after the American Revolution. During this period, the majority of European settlers were from Britain, and they brought with them the speech patterns, vocabulary, and grammar of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England. The American Revolution was grounded in the struggle for political independence, and at least for some, that meant linguistic independence as well. In 1774, an American patriot declared, “The English language has been greatly improved in Britain within a century, but its highest perfection, with every other branch of human knowledge, is perhaps reserved for this land of light and freedom.” Perhaps the most noteworthy 10. The members of the Philological Society of Great Britain, to whom the idea of the OED must be credited, argued that existing dictionaries were “incomplete and deficient.”

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

individual in the formation of American English is Noah Webster (1758–1843), who compiled three books: a speller, a grammar, and a reader. The speller was an extraordinary success, and over the next century it would sell more than 80 million copies. His most lasting and influential work, however, was An American Dictionary of the English Language, which he wrote as a contribution “into the common treasure of patriotic exertions.” Webster believed that a national language was an instrument of unity: It is not only important, but, in a degree necessary, that the people of this country should have an American Dictionary of the English language; for, although the body of the language is the same as in England, and it is desirable to perpetuate that sameness, yet some differences must exist. Language is an expression of ideas; and if the people of our country cannot preserve an identity of ideas, they cannot retain an identity of language. (Preface to An American Dictionary, 1828)

Hand from a monumental statue of the Roman Emperor Constantine (313–337 CE) (Museo Capitolino, Rome)

CHAPTER 2

American English is, of course, the product of both normal linguistic change and the “melting pot” of American society. Each wave of immigration to the United States—from Northern, Southern, and Eastern Europe, from Asia, from Africa, and from South America—has made its own contributions to the development of a distinctly American English, not only in terms of vocabulary but also in patterns of speech and usage.Yet, despite some regional variations, what marks American English is its uniformity. In the last century, the advent of radio, the movies, and television accelerated the process of hom*ogenization of American speech and vocabulary. According to the 2011 U.S. census, over 60 million Americans speak a language other than English at home. The largest numbers belong to the Indo-European family, but among the top ten are Chinese, Korean,Vietnamese, and Tagalog. How Do You Spell That? Noah Webster’s eagerness to create an “American” English led to the Americanization of the orthography of many English words that had entered the language through French. Thus, honour became honor, and centre became center. Of course, spelling reform can also create confusion. Although Benjamin Franklin urged that the silent letters in words be eliminated, that would mean that we work hard to put bred on the table. And what about the pronunciation of through, although, tough, and thought? There are some words, of course, that might benefit from a firm editorial hand. Although we have all been taught that the longest non-technical word in English is antidisestablishmentarianism (twenty-eight letters), the prize actually goes to floccinaucinihilipilification (twenty-nine letters), a word said to have been coined as a joke by some British schoolboys but now listed in the OED. It is composed of a number of Latin words, all of which mean “of little or no value.” Its meaning is “the action or habit of estimating something as worthless.”

A N O U T L I N E O F T H E H I S T O RY O F T H E E N G L I S H L A N G UAG E

The Roman Occupation of Britain: First century CE–410 CE 1. The earlier presence of Celtic languages (which also belong to the IndoEuropean family) 2. Introduction of Latin, the language of conquest and commerce 3. Withdrawal of the Roman army (410 CE)

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

The Anglo-Saxons and Old English: 450–1150 CE 1. Invasion of the Germanic tribes (449) 2. Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity (597) 3. Beowulf : eighth to ninth centuries (?) 4. Viking raids on Britain: eighth to ninth centuries 5. The Norman Conquest (1066) Middle English: 1150–1500 CE 1. The Anglo-French connection: loss of many Old English words; addition of thousands of Latin-based words via French; changes in grammar and structure 2. Development of a vernacular literature Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400): Canterbury Tales William Langland (d. 1400): Piers Plowman 3. First translation of Bible into English, attributed to John Wycliff (d. 1384) 4. Introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton (1476) Modern English: 1500 CE–present 1. Decline of Latin as common European language of discourse 2. Translations of classical Latin and Greek texts into the vernacular 3. William Shakespeare (1564–1616) 4. Standardization of spelling (orthography) and enrichment of English vocabulary (sixteenth to seventeenth centuries) 5. Dr. Samuel Johnson: A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) 6. The development of the scientific study of comparative, historical, and structural linguistics (eighteenth century) 7. The influence of British colonialism and the impact of Empire (nineteenth and twentieth centuries) 8. James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary (1879–1928) American English From Jamestown to the end of the colonial period: 1607–1790 The establishment of the forms and patterns of American English, as distinct from British English.

CHAPTER 2

Westward expansion: 1790–1860 1. Immigration from Western Europe and Ireland 2. Noah Webster: An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) 3. Settlement of the far west Since the American Civil War: 1865–present 1. Emancipation Proclamation (1863): influence of “Black” English 2. Immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe (1880–1920) 3. Immigration from Caribbean and South America (1945–present) 4. Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Rim (1975–present) 5. Uniformity of language vs. regionalism; the influence of radio, television, and movies Creole

A Creole is a language that has been formed by the mixing of two or more “parent” languages and that has become the first language of a community. Creoles are often the result of trade or colonialism and slavery, developed out of the need for a common means of communication between different groups. Gullah, a combination of English and West African languages that is now spoken by perhaps 100,000 people who live in the islands off the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia, was shaped by Africans brought to America as slaves. Although its vocabulary is for the most part grounded in English, its grammar, sentence structure, and pronunciation have been influenced by the original African languages.

A N D W H AT I S M O R E

Although the strongest influences on the Germanic core vocabulary of English have been Latin and the Romance languages, most of these words have become “Anglicized,” or made to conform to specific English forms and patterns. Some, however, have retained the tones and inflections of their original home, and English contains a host of words and phrases from the Romance languages that have entered English unchanged in form and meaning. But words from many other languages have also found a new home in English. Here’s a brief selection: there will be more in following chapters.

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

from the Romance languages aficionado (Sp): literally, affectionate; an ardent fan avant-garde (Fr): literally, guard before; experimentalists in any art in a particular period carte blanche (Fr): literally, a blank document; unconditional authority coup (Fr): literally, a blow; a clever action or accomplishment desperado (Sp): outlaw fiasco (It): literally, a bottle; a total failure prima donna (It): literally, first lady; a temperamental individual from further afield bazaar (Persian bazar): market candy (Arabic qandi): literally, a piece of sugar guru (Hindi): literally, a teacher or priest. An influential teacher or mentor pajama (Hindi): literally, a loose garment tycoon (Japanese): literally, great prince; a businessperson having great wealth and power Of course, the etymological road leads in two directions. Take, for example, the French “le weekend” or “le drugstore.” SOME USEFUL TERMS

Etymology: the study of the history of a particular word; the derivation or origin of a word Lexicography: the compiling of dictionaries; Dr. Johnson labeled lexicographers as “harmless drudges” Lexicon: a dictionary Linguistics: the science of language, including the history, formation, and structures of languages Orthography: correct spelling Philology: the study of written records; linguistics Phonology: the science of speech sounds, speech elements, and pronunciation Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning and form Syntax: the rules or patterns of the formation of sentences

CHAPTER 2

Let Me Count the Words How many words are there in English? As the Oxford English Dictionary points out, there is no single sensible answer to this question, but it adds that there are 170,476 entries of words in current use; if distinct meanings were counted, the number would rise to nearly 750,000. On the other hand, most lists of basic English vocabulary contain 800–1,000 words. That doesn’t mean, of course, that one’s vocabulary is limited to that number of words; there are 25,000 words in the Oxford Pocket Dictionary, but it is claimed that 90 percent of the concepts that these words define can be expressed with a vocabulary of 850 words. Let Me Count the Words (Again) . . . According to scholars, William Shakespeare’s works contain 31,534 vocabulary words (yes, someone has counted them). And yet, perhaps as an illustration of the decline of the classical languages as an indication of learning, the playwright Ben Jonson, his contemporary, describes him with these words: “Though thou hadst small Latin and less Greek.” We Speak the Same Language, Don’t We? If in London you follow the sign marked subway, you will find yourself in an underground passage that allows you to cross a heavily traveled street. The London Underground is the New York City subway. Got that?

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

But What Does It Mean? “When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather scornful tone, “it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”—Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass Words,Words, and More Words It is said that because of the various linguistic strands that form English vocabulary, English contains more synonyms than any other language. Some Latin-based synonyms are simply more elegant forms of Germanic-based vocabulary. For example, Germanic-Based Word Latin-Based Word beg supplicate behead decapitate drink imbibe bitterness asperity greedy rapacious harmful deleterious hate abhor house domicile slander calumniate tiredness lassitude Studying Language Can Be Glamorous The words grammar and glamour have the same etymology. Grammar, a system that describes the structures of a particular language, is derived from the Greek word gramma (something written). In medieval Europe, few people could read, and those who could were thought to possess special magical power.The original meaning of glamour, which is a variant pronunciation of grammar, was magic or enchantment.

2 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ 1. Approximately how many languages are there estimated to be spoken in the world? ____________ 2. List three ways by which language families are distinguished:

(a) ____________, (b) ____________, (c) ____________

3. Name four language families other than Indo-European:

(a) ____________, (b) ____________, (c) ____________, (d) ____________

4. Where are the Dravidian languages spoken? ____________ Mon-Khmer? ____________ 5. How many varieties of Chinese are there? ____________ What common factor unites them? ____________ 6. To what language family does Quechua belong? ____________ Where is it spoken? ____________ 7. How many, approximately, languages are spoken in Africa? ____________ 8. To what branch of the Indo-European family does English belong? ____________ 9. To which branch of the Indo-European family does Latin belong? ____________ 10. To which branch of the Indo-European family does Greek belong? ____________ 11. What percentage of English vocabulary is derived from Latin and Greek? ______ What percentage of scientific and technical vocabulary? ______ 12. List five Germanic languages that are still spoken today.

(1) ____________ (2) ____________ (3)____________ (4) ____________ (5) ____________

13. To which language family does Anglo-Saxon belong? ________________ To which branch? ____________Where and when was it spoken? ____________ 14. Name one work written in Old English. ____________ 15. Anglo-Saxon is a synonym for which language? _______________

CHAPTER 2

16. What event introduced a Latin-based vocabulary into English? ____________ When did it occur? ____________ Through which language did most of these words first pass? ______________ 17. Who wrote Canterbury Tales? ____________ To which period of English does it belong? ____________ 18. Who is generally credited with the introduction of the printing press into England?

____________When? ____________

19. What effect did the introduction of the printing press have on the development of the English language? ____________________________________ 20. Who compiled A Dictionary of the English Language? ____________ When? _________ 21. Eighteenth-century grammarians tended to look at which language when establishing the rules of English usage? ____________. 22. Give one cause of the introduction of many non-Indo-European words into English. ________________________ 23. Who was the first editor of the Oxford English Dictionary? ____________ How long did it take to complete? ____________ 24. What was the first permanent English-speaking settlement in America? ____________ When was it founded? ____________ 25. From which region of Europe did the earliest immigrants to the United States come? ________________________ 26. During the period 1880–1920, from which area did most of the immigrants come?

____________ During the period since 1945? ____________

27. What were Noah Webster’s contributions to American English? _______________________ ________________________________________________ 28. What is etymology? ______________________________________ 29. What is linguistics? ______________________________________ 30. What is orthography? ________________________ 31. If someone says, “It’s only a matter of semantics,” what does she mean? ________________________

L A N G U A G E A N D H I S T O RY

32. What is the largest language family? ________________________How many people worldwide speak a language that belongs to that family? ____________ 33. Which language has the largest number of speakers? ____________ Why? ____________ 34. How many people worldwide speak English as their first language? ____________ 35. What does the term vernacular mean? ________________________ 36. What has been the effect of television and the movies on American English? ____________________________ 37. What is lexicography? ________________________ 38. Why is French called a Romance language? ________________________ 39. What is an “orphan” language? ____________ Give one example. ____________ 40. What is a lingua franca? ____________ Give an example. ____________ 41. Sanskrit is no longer spoken, but how is it preserved? ____________ 42. From which language does the word tycoon come? ____________ What is its literal meaning in that language? ____________ What is its English usage? ____________ 43. From which language does the word fiasco come? ____________What is its literal meaning in that language? ____________ What is its English usage? ____________ 44. From what language does the phrase carte blanche come? ____________ What is its meaning in that language? ____________ What is its English usage? ____________

What are the Germanic-based synonyms for the following Latin-based words? Use your dictionary if you are not sure of the meaning of the Latin-based word. 45. acrimonious

____________

46. juvenile

____________

47. mordant

____________

48. bibulous

____________

49. execrate

____________

50. What is the biggest source of new vocabulary today? ________________________

CHAPTER 2

The following words have entered English unchanged (but sometimes with slight changes in spelling) from other languages. Use your dictionary to find the language of origin and meaning:

Language of Origin

Meaning

51. angst

________________

52. nadir

________________

53. khaki

________________

54. sputnik

________________

55. pariah

________________

56. robot

________________

57. caravan

________________

58. taboo

________________

59. mummy

________________

60. bungalow

________________

61. guru

________________

3 H o w L at i n W o r k s
the noun maker; the verb like > the adjective likeable). In Latin, nouns and adjectives may be formed from either the present or perfect passive stem of the verb. Remember that the present stem will often lose its final vowel, especially if it is joined to a suffix that begins with a vowel.

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

A. Nouns and Adjectives Formed from the Present Stem of Latin Verbs Latin Noun Ending

English Meaning

English Derivative Form

-mentum -bulus, -bulum -men -or -culus, culum

state of, quality of means of, place of, result of means of, place of, result of means of, place of, result of means of, place of, result of

-ment -ble -men -or -cle

Latin Adjectival Ending

English Meaning

English Derivative Form

-bilis, -ilis -ax, acis -uus; -ulus -idus -ns, -ntis (singular) -ntes or -ntia (plural)

capable of being inclined to inclined to inclined to indicates present participle indicates present participle

-ble, -ile -acious -uous; -ulous -id -nt2 -nce or -ncy

Examples Latin Verb English Meaning Present Stem

Latin Noun or Adjective

English Derivative

sto-stare stand sta- stabulum stable (noun) stabilis stable (adj.) doceo-docēre teach docē- docilis docile documentum document specio-specere look at spece- specimen specimen rigeo-rigēre stiffen rigē- rigor rigor rigidus rigid vivo-vivere live vive- vividus vivid vivax, vivacis vivacious veho-vehere carry, ride vehe- vehiculum vehicle audeo-audēre dare audē- audax, audacis audacious credo-credere believe crede- credulus credulous credibilis credible 2. A participle is a verb form used as an adjective; the present active participle is formed most often in English by adding the suffix -ing to the basic form of the verb—e.g., the running man, the smiling woman, the driving rain. Because Latin participles are adjectives, they can be declined and have number. All present participles belong to the third declension.

CHAPTER 4

(www.cartoonstock.com)

Latin Verb English Meaning Present Stem

Latin Noun or Adjective

English Derivative

tango-tangere touch tange- vaco-vacare be empty vaca- tolero-tolerare bear tolera- ago-agere do, drive age- rego-regere rule rege- audio-audire hear audi-

tangens, -entis tangent tangibilis tangible vacuus vacuous vacans, -antis vacant vacantia vacancy tolerans, -antis tolerant tolerantia tolerance agens, -entis agent agentia agency regens, -entis regent regentia regency audientes audience

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

B. Noun- and Adjective-Forming Suffixes with the Perfect Passive Stem of Latin Verbs3 Latin Ending

English Meaning

English Derivative Form

-or -rix -ura -orius; -orium -ivus -io, -ionis -ilis

he who she who act of, result of that which is used for given to state of, result of, process of capable of being

-or -rix -ure -ory; -orium -ive -ion -ile

Examples Latin Verb

Perfect Stem

ago-agere-actum act- doceo-docēre-doctum doct- sto-stare-statum stat- facio-facere-factum fact- capio-capere-captum capt- audio-audire-auditum audit- mitto-mittere-missum miss- tango-tangere-tactum tact- video-vidēre-visum vis- voco-vocare-vocatum vocat-

Latin Noun or Adjective

English Derivative

actor actor activus active actio, actionis action doctor doctor statura stature statio, stationis station factorium factory factio, factionis faction captor captor captura capture captivus captive auditorium auditorium auditio, auditionis audition auditor auditor missio, missionis mission missilis missile tactilis tactile visibilis visible visio, visionis vision vocatio, vocationis vocation

3.The fourth principal part of the verb, from which the perfect passive stem is derived, is also a participle, but passive in meaning, and refers to some event that happened in the past. It is most often expressed in English by the suffixes -ed and -en: e.g., scrambled eggs (eggs that have been scrambled), broken leg (a leg that has been broken), or a married man (a man who has been married). Although the stem has a passive meaning, it can take on an active meaning when a suffix is added (see examples above).

CHAPTER 4

Can You Spell That? Although knowing the Latin root of an English word often can help you figure out its spelling, unfortunately it doesn’t always work. For example, the person who holds a piece of property should be a tenent, since its Latin root is teneo-tenēre. What is the correct English spelling of this word? Check your dictionary to find out the reason why.

V. V E R B A L S U F F I X E S

A. The Romans added the verbs ago, facio, and capio to adjectives and nouns to form new verbs, adjectives, and nouns. The newly formed verbs then had the meaning of to do, make, or take a certain state. Latin Verb

English Meaning

Latin Compound Verb Form

English Derivative Form

ago facio capio

do, drive make, do take

-igo -ficio -cipio

-igate; -igation -fy; -fic; -ficate -cipate; -cipation

Examples Latin Adjective or Noun

English Meaning

Compound Latin Verb

English Derivative

castus, casti navis, navis pax, pacis pars, partis

pure ship peace part

castigo (make pure) navigo (drive a ship) pacifico4 (make peaceful) participo (take part)

castigate navigation pacify; pacific participate

B. By adding the suffix -sco to a verb stem, noun, or adjective, Latin indicates the process of beginning or continuing.

4. Note that in compounds formed from a noun or adjective together with -ficio or -cipio, the final -i of the verb stem often disappears.

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

Examples Latin Root

English Meaning

Latin Compound Form

candeo-candēre shine candesco = begin to shine seneo-senēre be old senesco = grow old quies, quietis rest quiesco = become quiet

English Derivative candescent candescence senescent senescence quiescent quiescence

V I . V E R B A L L E A R N E D B O R ROW I N G S 5

There are many learned borrowings in English that are derived from Latin verb stems: Latin Verb

English Meaning

caedo-caedere-caesum kill facio-facere-factum make fero-ferre-latum carry, bear voro-vorare-voratum eat

English Derivative Form

English Meaning

-cide -fact -fer -vore

killer, killed made carrier eater

Examples English Latin Noun English Meaning Derivative Form

English Noun

English Adjective

frater, fratris ars, artis conus, coni caro, carnis

fratricide artifact conifer carnivore

fratricidal artificial coniferous carnivorous

brother skill cone flesh

-cide -fact -fer -vore

5. A learned borrowing is a word based on a Greek or Latin root, but given a meaning that it did not have in Latin or Ancient Greek—e.g., telephone, which is formed from the ancient Greek words tele- (from a distance) and phone (sound). The Greeks of the fifth century BCE obviously did not have telephones, but because of the high esteem in which classical learning was held, the ancient Greek language was used to name this nineteenth-century invention.

CHAPTER 4

What Do You Call That Word? All the terms used to describe the parts of speech in English are derived from Latin roots. noun = a word referring to a person, place, thing, state, or quality (nomen, nominis = name). verb = a word that expresses, action, existence, or occurrence (verbum, verbi = word). adjective = a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun (adjicio-adjicere-adjectum = add to). adverb = a word that modifies or qualifies a verb or adjective. preposition = a word placed before a noun to form a phrase that modifies another noun, adjective, or verb (praepono-proponere-praepositum = place before). conjunction = a connector between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (conjungo-conjungere-conjunctum = join together). Gender Differences Gender is a grammatical category that is used to classify nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (and in some languages, verbs). In the Romance languages, the gender of nouns can be determined by their articles (the). These articles are derived from the masculine and feminine forms of the Latin demonstrative adjective ille, illa = that Latin

Spanish French

Italian

ille = that (man) illa = that (woman)

el la

il la

le la

What Does That Mean? Sometimes an English word will retain its singular and plural Latin endings when it comes into English. For example, the Latin verb ago-agere produces agenda, which literally means “the things that are to be done,” while erro-errare-erratum (wander, go astray) gives us erratum (singular) and errata (plural). How are these words used in English?

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

Anglo-Saxon Suffixes Not all English suffixes are Greek or Latin in origin. Old English (Anglo-Saxon) has left its mark on the formation of modern English vocabulary as well. Old English Suffix English Meaning

Example

-ard possessor of -er, -ster agent -less without -ful full of -some full of -ish somewhat -ness quality of, state of -dom state of being, domain of -hood state, condition, character -ship state, condition, character

dullard doer, gangster toothless truthful quarrelsome, toothsome foolish happiness, largeness kingdom, martyrdom motherhood, neighborhood kingship, kinship

4 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. What English adjectives are derived from the following Latin nouns? What is the current meaning of each adjective? Use the endings in section I of this chapter. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary. Examples Latin Noun

English Meaning

English Adjective

Current Usage

vulgus, vulgi

crowd

vulgar

crude, unrefined

boy

puerile

immature, childish

> vulgaris puer, pueri > puerilis Latin Noun

English Meaning

English Adjective

Current Usage

1. tempus, temporis

time

________________

2. mundus, mundi

world

________________

3. populus, populi

people

________________

4. corpus, corporis

body

________________

5. miles, militis

soldier

________________

6. fabula, fabulae

story

________________

7. lex, legis

law

________________

8. nomen, nominis

name

________________

9. ops, opis

wealth, power

________________

10. verbum, verbi

word

________________

11. stella, stellae

star

________________

CHAPTER 4

B. Which English nouns are derived from the following Latin adjectives? What is the current meaning of each noun? Use the endings in Section II. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary. Examples Latin Adjective

English Meaning

English Noun

Current Usage

avarum, avari

greedy

avarice

greed

fortis, fortis

brave, strong

fortitude

moral strength, bravery

Latin Adjective

English Meaning

English Noun

Current Usage

12. clarum, clari

clear

________________

13. malum, mali

bad

________________

14. brevis, brevis

short

________________

15. novum, novi

new

________________

16. acer, acris

harp

________________

17. varium, varii

different

________________

18. memor, memoris

mindful

________________

19. sanctum, sancti

holy

________________

20. gravis, gravis

heavy

________________

C. The following words have been made up, but they have been given Latin adjectival or noun endings. Identify each as either a noun or an adjective, and give the meaning of the suffix.

Noun or Adjective?

Meaning of Suffix

21. spragid

________________

22. fulmatorium

________________

23. granatary

________________

24. crellacious

________________

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

25. dractator

________________

26. stracticial

________________

27. grenulent

________________

28. lorbimony

________________

29. traminiety

________________

30. spranabile

________________

31. muvacture

________________

32. revulist

________________

33. quacticule

________________

34. scrimitude

________________

D. What English nouns and adjectives are derived from the present stems (second principal part) of the following Latin verbs? What is the current usage of each noun or adjective? Use the endings in Section IV, part A. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary. Examples Latin Verb

English Meaning

Present Stem

Eng. Noun or Adj.

Current Usage

vivo-vivere-victum

live

vivē-

vivid

intense, full of life

valeo-valēre6

be strong

valē-

valor

boldness, courage

Latin Verb

Meaning

Pres. Stem

Eng. Noun or Adj. Current Usage

35. curro-currere-cursum

run

____________ ____________ ____________

36. experior-experiri-expertum try

____________ ____________ ____________

37. recipio-recipere-receptum

take back

____________ ____________ ____________

38. miror-mirari-miratum

wonder at

____________ ____________ ____________

39. stupeo-stupēre

be stunned ____________ ____________ ____________

6. Some verbs do not have a perfect passive system.

CHAPTER 4

40. sedeo-sedēre-sessum

sit

____________ ____________ ____________

41. fallo-fallere-falsum

deceive

____________ ____________ ____________

42. clamo-clamare-clamatum

shout

____________ ____________ ____________

43. solvo-solvere-solutum

loosen

____________ ____________ ____________

44. patior-pati-passum

suffer

____________ ____________ ____________

E. Which English nouns and adjectives are derived from the perfect stems of the following Latin verbs? What is the current usage of each noun or adjective? Use the endings in Section IV, part B. If necessary, consult your dictionary. Examples Latin Verb

English Meaning

Perf. Stem

Eng. Noun or Adj.

Current Usage

tolero-tolerare-toleratum

bear, endure

tolerat-

toleration

endurance

junct-

juncture

act of joining

jungo-jungere-junctum join

English

Latin Verb

Meaning

Perf. Stem

45. nascor-nasci-natum

be born

____________ ____________ ____________

46. lego-legere-lectum

read, choose

____________ ____________ ____________

47. curro-currere-cursum

run

____________ ____________ ____________

48. morior-mori-mortuum

die

____________ ____________ ____________

49. sedeo-sedēre-sessum

sit

____________ ____________ ____________

50. fallo-fallere-falsum

deceive

____________ ____________ ____________

51. patior-pati-passum

suffer, bear

____________ ____________ ____________

52. sentio-sentire-sensum

feel

____________ ____________ ____________

53. solvo-solvere-solutum

loosen

____________ ____________ ____________

54. muto-mutare-mutatum

change

____________ ____________ ____________

55. frango-frangere-fractum

break

____________ ____________ ____________

Eng. Noun or Adj. Current Usage

L AT I N I N T O E N G L I S H

F. Fill in the blank with the literal meaning7 of the italicized word or part of the word. Make sure that your answers are grammatically correct. 56. All his arguments were fallacious, but everyone was ____________ by them. 57. His sanctimonious words revealed that he thought he was ____________ than everyone else. 58. They tried to revivify the patient, but it became clear that he was no longer ____________. 59. The mutability of our circ*mstances shows that our lives are subject to ____________. 60. It is said that “brevity is the soul of wit,” but some speakers never learn to keep their comments ____________. 61. If you have a sedentary job, you will spend a lot of time ____________. 62. The clamor in the street grew as the crowd ____________ their demands. 63. She gave the document a cursory glance as her eye ____________ down the page. 64. I asked him to verbalize his thoughts, but he couldn’t find the ____________. 65. The Maritime Provinces of Canada are situated by the ____________ 66. In Roman gladiatorial combat, the chief weapon of the fighters was the ____________. 67. His voracious appetite drove him to ____________ everything in the refrigerator. 68. I was told he had a mortal illness, but I hoped he would not ____________. 69. Identify the functions of the italicized words (nouns, adjectives, verbs?) in the following sentence: The spragid glomularity of the stractibulous bananitude oblifected me.

7. In this, and in all following exercises, a blank represents the literal definition of the italicized word or part of the word. In the context of these exercises, the literal meaning of a word or part of a word is the original meaning of the Greek or Latin root.

CHAPTER 4

G. Fill in the blank with a word of the opposite meaning chosen from the list below. Check your dictionary if you are not sure of the meaning. scarce silent

freedom concrete rebellious

peaceful poor

secretive separation otherworldly

70. juncture

__________

71. copious

__________

72. mundane

__________

73. turbulent

__________

74. vocal

__________

75. docile

__________

76. intangible

__________

77. opulent

__________

78. candid

__________

79. servitude

__________

5 How Greek Works

Greek magical papyrus. The snake swallowing its tail is a symbol of eternity. (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris)

Graecum est. Non potest legi. (It’s Greek to me; it cannot be read.) Comment of a medieval scribe who could not decipher the Greek words found in his Latin manuscript

CHAPTER 5

Like Latin, Greek is an inflected language with declensions and conjugations. Because most English words derived from Greek roots are learned borrowings, or because the Greek word had passed into Latin before coming into English at a later time, there are not the same strict rules, as there are for Latin-based words, for the formation of Greek-based English vocabulary.1 THE GREEK ALPHABET

Greek Letter

Greek Name

a, A

a/lfa

b, B g, G d, D e, E z, Z h, H q, Q i, I k, K l, L m, M n, N c, C o, O p, P r, R s, j, S t, T u, U f, F x, X y, Y w, W

Pronunciation

(alpha) ă (short) bh=ta (beta) b ga/mma (gamma) g (hard) de/lta (delta) d e)/ yilon (epsilon) ĕ (short) zh=ta (zēta) dz h)=ta (ēta) ā (long) qh=ta (thēta) th i)w=ta (iota) ĭ (short) ka/ppa (kappa) k la/mbda (lambda) l mu= (mu) m nu= (nu) n ci= (xi) x o)/ mikro/n (omicron) ŏ (short) pi= (pi) p r(w= (rho) r si=gma (sigma) s tau= (tau) t u)= yilo/n (upsilon) u fi= (phi) f xi= (chi) ch yi= (psi) ps w) me/ga (omega) ō (long)

Transliteration a b g d e z e th i c or k l m n x o p r or rh s t y or u ph ch ps o

1. For that reason, the genitive case of nouns and adjectives will be given only when it is the basis for the formation of the English derivative.

H OW G R E E K WO R K S

RU L E S F O R T R A N S L I T E R AT I N G G R E E K WO R D S I N T O E N G L I S H

1. Diphthongs (two vowels that blend into a single sound): Diphthong ai

Transliteration

ae, e au au ei ei, i, e eu eu oi oe, i, e ou ou, u

Greek Example

English Transliteration

faino/menon2

phenomenon Ai)qiopi/a Ethiopia au)to/ auto (self, same) xei=r chir (hand) eu)logi/a eulogia (praise) yeu=don pseudon (false) a)moibh/ ameba or amoeba (change) Mou=sa Muse

2. upsilon (u) is usually transliterated as y: ku/kloj = cyclos (circle) Ai/)sxuloj = Aeschylus3 tu/poj = typos (figure, form) When it is part of a diphthong, however, it is transliterated as a u. trau=ma = trauma (wound) yeu=don = pseudon (false) 3. If a gamma (g) appears before another gamma, kappa (k), chi (x), or xi (c), the gamma is pronounced in Greek, and transliterated in English, as an n. a)/ggeloj = angelos (messenger) fa/lagc = phalanx (phalanx, body of troops) a)gku/ra = ankyra (anchor) bro/gxoj = bronchos (windpipe) 4. If a word begins with a vowel, that vowel is marked with what is called a breathing sign. There are two breathing signs: smooth and rough. If a word has a smooth breathing sign, the vowel is given its original value; if it has a rough 2. Almost every Greek word has an accent mark, but it does not affect the transliteration of the word. 3. Many Greek words were borrowed by the Romans and given Latin endings; thus, the Greek -os, -on becomes the Latin -us, -um.

CHAPTER 5

breathing mark, it is pronounced and transliterated with an initial h before the vowel. smooth breathing sign = ) rough breathing sign = ( a)nti/ = anti (against) a(rmoni/a = harmonia (harmony) i)w=ta = iota w(/ra = hora (time) 5. If a word begins with a rho (ρ), the rho always receives a rough breathing sign, and is transliterated as rh. If it appears elsewhere in the word, it is transliterated as an r. r(h/twr = rhetor (speaker) r(o/mboj = rhombos (rhombus) de/rma = derma (skin) peri/ = peri (around) 6. If a word begins with a kappa (k), it is transliterated either as a c or a k.

This death mask, made of gold and dating to the sixteenth century BCE, was labeled by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann as the “mask of Agamemnon.” (National Museum, Athens)

H OW G R E E K WO R K S

C O G N AT E S

Because both Latin and Greek are members of the Indo-European family and therefore have a common ancestry, many Latin words have Greek cognates (words that are derived from the same earlier forms). Thus we find the following verbs in Greek that are related to Latin verbs we have already seen on the list of “Very Useful Latin Verbs.” These verbs have the same meaning. Latin Verb

Greek Verb

English Meaning

ago fero sto do

ago (a)/gw) do, drive phero (fe/rw) bear, carry histemi ( i/(sthmi) stand, cause to stand didomi (di/dwmi) give

It’s Greek to Me It’s fairly obvious why we call the series of letters with which we construct English written words the alphabet, but Greek letters have made their way into our language in other ways: • Among social animals, such as wolves or chimpanzees, an alpha male describes the “leader of the pack” who asserts his authority through intimidation and physical force. It is also used unflatteringly to describe a human male with the same qualities. • The triangular shape of the capital form of the letter delta (D) gave its name to the geographical feature caused by the divergence of a river into two branches at its mouth. • The letter i)w=ta is so small and sometimes indistinct that it may be overlooked. Thus, it has come to mean a very tiny measure. “I don’t care one iota if I ever learn the Greek and Latin roots of English.” And then, of course, there are all those scientific terms such as gamma rays, muons, and taus that physicists like to toss around in casual conversation. What Did You Say? The ancient Greeks. who were resolutely monolingual and not at all interested in the systematic study of other languages, dismissively defined anyone who did not speak Greek as one who spoke a glossa barbaros (glw=ssa ba/rbaroj), a “foreign language.”

5 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Transliterate the following Greek words according to the rules given in this chapter. Which of these words came into English unchanged? If the word is unchanged, what is its current meaning? Even if the word does not exist in the transliterated form in English, can you figure out what it might mean in Greek? Use your dictionary as a research tool. Example Greek Word

Transliteration

Unchanged?

Current or Possible Meaning

qe/oj

theos genesis

no yes

god (cf. theology) beginning, birth

ge/nesij

Greek Word

Transliteration

Unchanged?

Current or Possible Meaning

1. dra=ma

____________ ______ _______________________

2. i(/ppoj

____________ ______ _______________________

3. ce/noj

____________ ______ _______________________

4. a)mfi/

____________ ______ _______________________

5. tro/poj

____________ ______ _______________________

6. strathgo/j ____________ ______ _______________________ 7. pre/sbuj ____________ ______ _______________________ 8. mhxanh/

____________ ______ _______________________

9. parabolh/ ____________ ______ _______________________ 10. u(po/

____________ ______ _______________________

11. fu/sij

____________ ______ _______________________

CHAPTER 5

Greek Word

Transliteration

Unchanged?

Current or Possible Meaning

12. lo/goj

____________ ______ _______________________

13. me/qodoj

____________ ______ _______________________

14. paragrafh/ ____________ ______ _______________________ 15. su/nqesij ____________ ______ _______________________ 16. spe/rma

____________ ______ _______________________

17. tra/peza ____________ ______ _______________________ 18. fa/rmakon ____________ ______ _______________________ 19. xa/risma ____________ ______ _______________________ 20. ai)/sqhsij ____________ ______ _______________________ 21. le/wn

____________ ______ _______________________

22. xarakth/r ____________ ______ _______________________ 23. a)ci/wma

____________ ______ _______________________

24. bibli/on

____________ ______ _______________________

25. polugami/a ____________ ______ _______________________ 26. e)/mfasij ____________ ______ _______________________ 27. o(mogenh/j ____________ ______ _______________________ 28. kardi/a

____________ ______ _______________________

29. w)keano/j ____________ ______ _______________________ 30. ba/rbaroj ____________ ______ _______________________ 31. kwm%di/a ____________ ______ _______________________ 32. leuko/j

____________ ______ _______________________

33. lh/qargoj ____________ ______ _______________________ 34. muqologi/a ____________ ______ _______________________

H OW G R E E K WO R K S

Greek Word

Transliteration

Unchanged?

Current or Possible Meaning

35. dia/lusij ____________ ______ _______________________ 36. nu/mfh

____________ ______ _______________________

37. lu/ra

____________ ______ _______________________

38. qro/noj

____________ ______ _______________________

39. ga/gglion

____________

40. mani/a

____________ ______ _______________________

41. nekro/j

____________ ______ _______________________

42. mi/asma

____________ ______ _______________________

43. e)ikw/n

____________ ______ _______________________

44. sxh=ma

____________ ______ _______________________

45. mnhmoniko/j

____________ ______ _______________________

______

_______________________

B. Choose five of the transliterated words above (1–45) that have come into English unchanged and use that word in an English sentence. If necessary consult your English dictionary. 46. ________________________________________________________________________ 47. ________________________________________________________________________ 48. ________________________________________________________________________ 49. ________________________________________________________________________ 50. ________________________________________________________________________

6 G r e e k i n to E n g l i s h
suppono-supponere-suppositum (place under).This is called assimilation. Sometimes there is only a partial assimilation of sounds: e.g., n before p becomes m, as in compose. 2. Sometimes the Latin prefixes cum and per (as well as the Greek dia/) serve merely to intensify the word to which they are affixed: e.g., per + facio > perficio-perficere-perfectum = do thoroughly, finish; or cum + cedo > concede-concedere-concessum = yield completely, give way. 3. The prefix co- is most often used as a learned borrowing, meaning “together” or “jointly”: e.g., coworker. 4. When the Latin word has first passed through French, contra most often becomes counter: e.g., contra + mando (order) > countermand.

Latin Preposition

L AT I N A N D G R E E K P R E F I X E S

English Meaning

English Combining Form Example

sine without se- sub under, sub-, suc-, suff-, in addition to sug-, sup-, sus- super5 above super- trans across trans-, tra- 6 ultra beyond ultra-

secure, secluded submit, success, suffer suggest, suppose, suspend supervise transmit, tradition ultrasonic

Phoenix mosaic. The phoenix was a mythical bird that was said to live for 500 years, then consume itself in fire, only to be reborn out of the ashes. Third century CE (Urfa, Turkey) 5.When the Latin word has first passed through French, super most often becomes sur: e.g., super + vivo (live) > survive. 6. Ultra is never used as a prefix in Latin. It appears in English only as a learned borrowing.

CHAPTER 7

II. GREEK PREPOSITIONS

Greek Preposition English Meaning

English Combining Form

amphi (a/mfi/) around, on both sides; amphi- of both kinds ana (a)na/) up; backward; again ana- anti (a)nti/) against anti- apo (a)po/) from, away from apo-, aph-* cata (kata/) down, away; concerning cata-, cath-* dia (dia/) through dia- en (e)n) in en-, em- ec (e)k) out of ec-, ex- epi (e)pi/) on, at, to; in addition to epi-, eph-* hyper7 (u(pe/r) over, beyond; excessively hyper- hypo (u(po/) under, below; slightly hypo-, hyph-* meta (meta/) with, after, beyond; change meta-, meth-* para (para/) beside, beyond; contrary para- to; irregular peri (peri/) around, about, near peri- pro (pro/) before, in front of pro- pros (pro/j) to, toward, in addition to pros- syn8 (su/n) with, together syn-, sym-, syl-, sym-, sys-

Example amphitheatre amphibious anagram, analogy antidote, antipathy apology, apostle, aphorism catalog, catastrophe, catholic, catheter diameter endemic, empathy ecstasy, exodus epistle, epidemic ephemeral hyperbole, hyperactive hypothesis, hyphen metabolism, method paradox, parallel, paranoia perimeter, periphery problem, prophet prosthesis synthesis, sympathy, syllable, symphony, system

* When placed before a word that begins with a rough breathing mark, the final vowel is dropped, and p changes to a f, and a t changes to a q.

7. Almost all uses of hyper- and hypo- in English compounds are learned borrowings. 8. In compounds, the n of syn- is often assimilated to the consonant that follows it.

L AT I N A N D G R E E K P R E F I X E S

I I I . P R E F I X E S D E R I V E D F RO M G R E E K A N D L AT I N A D J E C T I V E S A N D A DV E R B S

Most English compound words formed from the following Greek and Latin adjectives and adverbs are learned borrowings. Words of Measurement Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

English Combining Form

acron (a)/kron) topmost acro- aequum, aequi equal equi- auto (au)to/) self auto- homeon (o(moi=on) similar homeo- hom*on (o(mo/n) same hom*o- ison (i)/son) equal iso- macron (makro/n) large, long, excessive macro- magnum, magni large magni- mega (me/ga) large, great mega- megalon (mega/lon) large, great megalo- micron (mikro/n) small micro- multum, multi much, many multi- omne, omnis all omni- pan (pa=n) all pan-, panto- poly (polu/) much, many poly- tele (th=le) at a distance, far tele-

Example acropolis equilateral autograph homeopathic hom*ogenize isosceles macrocosm magnify megaphone megalomania microphone multiply omnivore pantheon, pantomime polygamy telephone

Words of Praise Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

English Combining Form

bene well bene- eu (eu)=) well eu- orthon (o)rqo/n) straight, right ortho- philia (fili/a) love phil-, philo- rectum, recti straight, right recti-

Example benefactor eulogy orthodox philanthropy, philosophy rectify

CHAPTER 7

Negatives Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

English Combining Form

a-9 (a)-) not, lack of, absence a- 10 in- not in-, il-, im- non not non- dis- apart, away, reverse dis- malum, mali bad mal-, male- cacon (kako/n) bad caco- dys- (dus-) bad, difficult dys- miseo (mise/w) hate miso- heteron (e(/teron) other, different hetero- retro backward retro-, re-

Example abyss innocuous illegal, immoral nonresistant disappear, dismiss malefactor cacophony dyslexia misogynist heterogeneous retrograde, regress

Odds and Ends Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

archeon (a)rxai=on) old paleon (palai=on) old neon (ne/on) new crypton (krupto/n) hidden quasi as if, resembling

English Combining Form

Example

archeo- paleo- neo- crypto- quasi-

archeology paleolithic neophyte cryptogram quasi-official

9. When a- is added to a word that begins with a vowel, an n is placed between the prefix and the root of the word: e.g., a + arche > anarchy. 10. There is, unfortunately, no way to distinguish between the use of in- as a prefix meaning in or on, and its use as a negative.

L AT I N A N D G R E E K P R E F I X E S

No Wonder I’m Confused Mastering the orthography of English can be a difficult business because of the various influences on the language over time, and the existence of both hom*ographs and hom*ophones only add to the confusion. hom*ographs are words that have the same written forms but different meanings (and sometimes different pronunciations).They may or may not have the same etymological root. 1. orient is derived from orior-oriri = rise morbid is derived from morbus, morbi = sickness Check your dictionary for different meanings of these words and how these meanings developed. 2. Host can mean either a very large army, or a person who greets and entertains you. The former is derived from hostis, hostis = enemy; the latter from hospes, hospitis = guest or host. Here are a few others to confuse you: You are not qualified, so I will give you only qualified approval. I wind my watch as I stand in the wind. I hope that my will will reflect my will. I wound my watch although I had a terrible wound. hom*ophones are words that sound alike but that are spelled differently (and have different meanings). Examples 1. I threw the ball through the window. 2. Don’t whine, he said, as he drank my glass of wine. 3. She knows where her nose is. Impress Your Friends Some words are just fun to know. Here are a couple: obfuscate = confuse or bewilder, especially in regard to the truth. “The governor tends to obfuscate even when asked a direct question.” obsequious = overly willing to follow the will or desire of another, especially one’s superiors. “His obsequious behavior toward his boss made everyone think he was her servant.”

7 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. In Exercises 1–29, fill in the blanks with the literal meaning of each italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that your sentences are grammatically correct. If you are not sure of the derivation, check your dictionary. Example A promotion moves you in front; a demotion moves you down. 1. At a colloquium, individuals __________ __________ one another. 2. An extraterrestrial being come from __________ the earth. 3. Circ*mstances are the events that __________ __________ an event. 4. Your supervisor is __________ __________ __________ your work. 5. An introvert is an individual who has __________ __________ himself. 6. A supposition is a statement that is __________ __________ an argument. Can you figure out a Greek-based word that has exactly the same meaning? __________ 7. In American history, “ante bellum” usually refers to the period __________ the Civil War. 8. To intervene in an argument is to __________ __________ the two sides. 9. If someone grabs you __________ the throat, you may suffocate. 10. An agenda is a list of things to be __________. 11. A person who interferes in your business __________ himself __________. 12. When the onus of responsibility is placed upon you, it becomes your __________. 13. A sinecure is a job __________ real responsibilities or duties. 14. An obstacle __________ __________ you.

CHAPTER 7

15. An aqueduct __________ water from one place to another. 16. A person who lives in seclusion is closed __________ from the world. 17. A circumlocution is a polite way of __________ __________ an unpleasant topic. 18. Contrary individuals are inclined to go __________ whatever the majority says. 19. A postscript is __________ __________ the body of a letter. 20. A permeable substance allows other material to pass __________ it. 21. A permanent stain is one that will remain __________. 22. An advertisem*nt __________ your attention __________ a product. 23. A deposition is a statement that has been __________ __________ about an event. 24. What does circa 1920 mean? ___________________ 25. I came to work via public transportation. In other words I was __________ __________ town __________ city streets. 26. An aggressive person walks __________ you in a hostile manner. 27. I was given a bonus because I did __________ job. 28. He lived in squalor; his apartment was so __________ I couldn’t stand it. 29. He claimed he was a pauper, but he certainly didn’t live like a __________ man.

B. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. 30. An amphitheatre has seats all __________. 31. An apostate is an individual who has __________ __________ his faith. 32. A peripatetic individual likes to walk __________all the time. 33. When you make a synthesis of various ideas, you __________ them __________.

L AT I N A N D G R E E K P R E F I X E S

34. An antidote is __________ __________ a poison. 35. A diagonal line is drawn __________ an angle. 36. An epitaph is written __________ a tombstone. 37. Metamorphosis indicates __________of shape or form. 38. A paramedic works __________ the doctor. 39. A hypercritical individual is __________ judgmental. 40. In a state of ecstasy, you may experience a psychological sensation of __________ __________ your body. 41. A disease that is endemic is widespread __________ the population. 42. A prophet speaks the true outcome of an event __________ it happens. 43. There was an exodus toward the doors as the audience looked for a way __________. 44. In a symphony, all the sounds blend __________.

C. As we have already seen, some Latin words changed their function when they entered into English. Here are some more Latin verb forms that have become English nouns. What are the current meanings of these Latin verbs? Latin Verb Form

Literal Translation

Current Meaning

45. credo

I believe

______________

46. affidavit

he has sworn

______________

47. deficit

it is lacking

______________

48. ignoramus

we do not know

______________

49. caveat

let him beware

______________

50. caret

it is lacking

______________

51. fiat

let it be done

______________

CHAPTER 7

D. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. 52. An omnivorous animal _______ ______ kinds of food. 53. If you are a neophyte at tennis, you may make mistakes because you are ______ to the sport. 54. A creature that is macrocephalic has a __________ skull. 55. A misogamist _______ the very thought of marriage. 56. The population of New York City may be described as heterogeneous because it is made up of many __________ nationalities and ethnic groups. 57. A benevolent individual wishes you ___________. 58. A dyspeptic individual may be irritable because she has ________ digestion. 59. A polygynist has _______ wives at the same time. 60. The Pantheon was an ancient temple in Rome dedicated to _______ the _______. 61. To be magnanimous means that you are generous and therefore have a ________ spirit. 62. If you are abysmally ignorant, your lack of knowledge is _________ any measure or depth. 63. A retrospective exhibit looks _________ at the whole of an artist’s work. 64. A musical composition that is euphonious _________ _________ to the ear. 65. A micrometer is an _________ _________ distances. 66. An Anglophile _________ all things English. 67. An autonomous state is one that is ____________ ____________. 68. A cryptogram is ________ whose meaning is __________. 69. An archaeologist _________ _________ cultures. 70. A rectilinear argument moves along a __________ line. 71. The speech of an incoherent individual does _________ hold together. 72. “Please do not desert me in the desert” provides an example of a _____________.

L AT I N A N D G R E E K P R E F I X E S

73. “He jumped into the air when he found out that he was heir to a fortune” provides an example of a ___________. 74. What is the difference between an immigrant and an emigrant? ______________________.

E. What’s in a name? Onyma (o)/numa) is the Greek word for name. Give the current meaning of each of the following compounds of onyma and cite an example of each.

Meaning Example

75. acronym

_________

76. hom*onym

_________

77. antonym

_________

78. synonym

_________

79. anonymous

_________

80. eponym

_________

F. How many of these words can you use to construct a coherent essay or story? Whatever you write must make grammatical and logical sense. If you are unsure of a meaning, check your dictionary. In addition, give the etymology of each of the words that you use. abhor

deviate

pervert

accost

emancipate

post mortem

adhere

exacerbate

prevaricate

antediluvian

extrovert

pro tempore

avert

internecine

seduce

collude

introspective

superstitious

compassion

oblivious

traitor

CHAPTER 7

G. Construct sentences that contain one of the following words and that demonstrate you understand the meaning of the word. You need use only one word per sentence but extra credit for using two or more. Make sure that your sentences are grammatically correct. anachronism

empirical

hypothesis

antithesis

ephemeral

paradigm

catastrophe

hyperbole

protagonist

8 L at i n and G r e e k Numbers

The Tomb of the Diver. Fifth-century BCE wall painting (Paestum, Italy)

Ten is the very nature of number.The Greeks and all barbarians alike count up to ten, and having reached ten, revert again to the single unit. AETIUS (first-century CE Greek philosopher)

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C O U N T D OW N

The similarities among the words for the numbers one through ten were one of the first clues that led scholars of comparative and historical linguistics to posit a common ancestry for what is now called the Indo-European family of languages. numerus, numeri = number arithmos (a)riqmo/j) = number Let Me Count the Ways (in Indo-European) . . . One Two

Three

Sanskrit ekas dvau Persian yek do Gaelic aon dhà Albanian njē dy Pashto yaw dwa German ein zwei Russian odin dva

trayah se trì tre dre drei tri

L AT I N N U M B E R S

Cardinal Numbers

Roman Numerals

English Combining Form

Example

1. unum 2. duo 3. tres 4. quattuor 5. quinque 6. sex 7. septem 8. octo 9. novem 10. decem 100. centum 1,000. mille

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X C M

uni- duo- or du- tri- quadri- quinqu- sexi- or sex- sept- oct- or octa- novem- or noven- decem- or deca- centi- or cent- milli- or mill-

uniform duet triangle quadrilateral quinquennial sextet September octet November December centigrade millennium

L AT I N A N D G R E E K N U M B E R S

How Long Did You Say I Have to Wait Here? In the seventeenth century, when an outbreak of bubonic plague spread across Europe bringing death and devastation, the rulers of Venice ruled that ships arriving from plague-infested places had to wait for forty days before passengers could disembark, in order to insure that no one on the boat was infected with the disease. The Italian Quarantina giorni (forty days) is derived from quadraginta, the Latin word for forty.What is the current meaning of the English word quarantine?

Examples of Roman Numerals XI = 11 XXV = 25 LXIV = 64 CCX = 210 DLXVII = 567

XIX = 19 XXXVI = 36 XCIV = 94 CCCXLVII = 347 MDCCCLXXXV = 1885

XX = 20 LIII = 53 CLXXIX = 179 CDXVII = 418 MCMLXXXIV = 1984

It’s Nothing Although they certainly understood the quality of “nothingness,” neither the Greeks nor the Romans had a symbol that indicated zero, or the absence of quantity. The arithmetic representation of zero was devised by Hindu mathematicians and given an Arabic name (sifr = emptiness) by medieval Muslim scientists. The word passed into English in two forms: cipher and zero. Latin Word

English Meaning

nihil nothing nullum, nullius no, none

Latin Ordinal Numbers Ordinal Numbers

English Meaning

primum first secundum second tertium third quartum fourth quintum fifth sextum sixth septimum seventh octavum eighth nonum ninth decimum tenth

Example primary second tertiary quart quintet sextuple septimal octave nonagenarian decimal

CHAPTER 8

We the People In 1782, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, e pluribus unum was adopted as the official motto of the United States and inscribed on the Great Seal.You can find its image on all American paper currency. E pluribus unum = out of many, one

Latin Numerical Adverbs and Adjectives Numerical Adverbs and Adjectives

English Meaning

Combining Form

solum, solius sesqui bis semi-1 ambo

single, alone one and a half twice half both

soli- solitary sesqui- sesquicentennial bi- biennial semi- semiannual ambi- ambidextrous

Example

(www.cartoonstock.com) 1. Semi- is used only as a prefix in Latin; in English usage it can mean half, as in semiannual (twice a year), but it often has the meaning of “somewhat” or “partially,” e.g., semiconscious.

L AT I N A N D G R E E K N U M B E R S

GREEK NUMBERS

Cardinal Numbers

English Combining Form

Example

1. hen (e(/n) heno- henotheist monon (mo/non) mono- monogram 2. dyo (du/o) dyo- or dy- dyad 3. tris (trei=j) tri- trigonometry 4. tessara or tettara tetra- tetrahedron (te/ssara, te/ttara) 5. pente (pe/nte) pent- or penta- pentathlon 6. hex (e(/c) hexa- hexameter 7. hepta (e(pta/) hepta- heptagon 8. octo (o)ktw/) octo- or octa- octopus 9. ennea (e)nne/a) ennea- ennead 10. deca (de/ka) deca- decalogue 100. hecaton (e(kato/n) hecto-2 hectogram 1,000. chilioi (x/ilioi) chilo- or kilo- chiliastic, kilogram

Greek Ordinal Numbers Ordinal Numbers

English Meaning

proton (prw=ton) first deuteron (deu/teron) second

English Combining Form

Example

proto- deutero-

prototype Deuteronomy

Other Greek ordinal numbers are rarely used in English compounds. Greek Numerical Adverbs Numerical Adverbs

English Meaning

English Combining Form

dis (di/j) twice di- hemi (h(mi-) half hemi-

2. Used in English only as a learned borrowing.

Example dilemma hemisphere

CHAPTER 8

The Years Fly By . . . If we wish to note an anniversary, we can use the Latin numerical prefix with the combining form of the Latin noun for year. annus, anni (year) > -ennial e.g., centum + annus = centennial It’s Over He asked for a finite number of ideas, but his speech went on to infinity. finio-finire-finitum = limit, fix; close So Stop Wasting Time The Romans called the point at which three roads met a trivium, a term that was also used to describe a public street. Perhaps because it was out in the open and therefore common, or perhaps because people would just hang out there, not talking about anything important, the topics of discussion could be described as trivial (via, viae = road). Or Perhaps I Can’t Count That High The largest number in Greek expressed in a single word is myrias, myriados (muria/j), which represents the number 10,000. But it also meant infinite, or countless, which is the meaning we give myriad in current English usage. It’s More Than Enough Although the word plethora (plhqw/rh) originally meant fullness, it now means an overabundance. It’s Too Much The word googol was coined by the nine-year-old nephew of the twentieth-century mathematician Edward Kasner, who defined it for him as “1 followed by a hundred zeros.” It seems like an appropriate word for a nonsensical number. The search engine Google is a play on the word, since it claims to offer access to an uncountable amount of knowledge. How Much Is Two and Ten? As we have already seen, the Roman numeral XII represents the number 12, or ten plus two. The word in Latin for twelve is just that: duo plus decem, or duodecim. The word passed into French and eventually appeared as douzaine. How do you think that happened?

L AT I N A N D G R E E K N U M B E R S

A fallen warrior, The Dying Gaul. Third century BCE (Museo Capitolino, Rome)

Don’t Be a Show-Off! Some people are afflicted with sesquipedalianism. They love using words that are oneand-a-half feet long, taking delight in showing off and confusing you. Here We Go Again . . . A palindrome is a word or a sequence of words that reads, letter for letter, the same backward as forward. “Was it a cat I saw?” pali/ndromoj = running back again

8 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Arrange the following words in numerical order as indicated by their Latin or Greek roots. What is the meaning of each word? Consult your unabridged dictionary if you are unsure of the meaning or etymology or any word listed.

English Word

Ranking

Meaning

1. trimester

__________________

2. octagon

__________________ __________________

3. quintuplet

__________________

4. primary

__________________

5. duality

__________________

6. September

__________________

7. millennium

__________________

8. percentage

__________________

9. semester

__________________

10. noon

__________________

11. unicycle

__________________

12. hemisphere

__________________

13. square

__________________

14. decimal

__________________

15. century

__________________

16. bigamy

__________________

17. hemidemisemiquaver __________________ __________________

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B. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that your sentences are grammatically correct. Example To unify a people is to make them into one. A deuterogamist has married for the second time. 18. Primates are ranked __________ in the order of living beings. 19. A trilogy is a literary work composed of __________ parts. 20. A quatrain is a verse of poetry that has __________lines. 21. A sextet has __________members. 22. When will the tricentennial celebration of American independence take place? __________ 23. Protoplasm is regarded as the __________ form of living matter. 24. When a chorus sings in unison, it sings with __________ voice. 25. The Pentagon is a __________-angled building. 26. A monotheist believes in __________ god. 27. In exactly two decades, what year will it be? __________ Write the answer in Roman numerals. __________ 28. If you are a sextuplet, how many siblings of your age do you have? __________ 29. If a judge declares a contract null and void, what does this ruling mean? ___________________ _________________________________________ 30. What is the difference in meaning between ambivalent and ambiguous? __________ 31. What is the difference between a kilometer and a millimeter? __________________________ __________________________________ 32. When an atomic bomb annihilated Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945, it reduced it __________ __________ 33. A semiannual event takes place __________ __________.

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34. A bicameral legislature has __________chambers of lawmakers. 35. A duplicitous individual is deceiving and tricky. What is the root of this word, and how do you think it took on its current meaning? ________________________________________ 36. Some people enjoy solitude, but I don’t like being __________. 37. What is the meaning of cipher in mathematics? ______________________________

What is its meaning when describing a person? ______________________________

38. What is the present meaning of plethora? ____________ Use it in a sentence. ____________ __________________________________________________________

C. What are the French, Spanish, and Italian words for the numbers given below? English French

Spanish

Italian

39. one

__________________

40. two

__________________

41. three

__________________

42. four

__________________

43. five

__________________

44. six

__________________

45. seven

__________________

46. eight

__________________

47. nine

__________________

48. ten

__________________

49. hundred

__________________

50. thousand

__________________

9 Government and P o l i t i c s

A philosopher. Fourth century BCE (Delphi Museum)

Man is a political animal—that is, it is the nature of man to live in the city. ARISTOTLE (fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher), Politics 1.2

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GREEK POLITICS

Many modern theories and forms of government (or at least the words we use to describe them) have their origins in the Greek and Roman political systems. Indeed, the Greeks had a name for every kind of polity; and at one time or another, they seem to have experimented with all of them: monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, democracy—all these words have etymological roots in Greek political thought. Ancient Greece was divided into independent city-states, all of which had their own constitutions, laws, and religious institutions. Each state (polis) fiercely guarded its autonomy, and every individual took his identity from his place of citizenship and its political, social, and religious ways of life. Although there were perhaps hundreds of these independent states in Greece, the two that dominated Greek political life in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE were Athens and Sparta.The two cities had radically different views of the meaning of law and power that determined the structure of their political institutions. Sparta held tenaciously to a way of life shaped by a conservative oligarchic form of government and by compulsory military training that began at age seven. Athens, on the other hand, created, over the course of the fifth century BCE, a radical democracy whose governing Council eventually had 500 members, all selected by lot, who served terms of one year. It is perhaps no surprise, then, that eventually, in 431 BCE, they went to war against each other. Although Sparta was eventually the military victor after nearly thirty years of intermittent warfare, both states, as well as their allies, were weakened by the conflict and neither ever recovered completely. In the fourth century BCE, Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great, brought almost all the poleis under his domination, and although nominally they were free, in reality the Greek cities lost their political autonomy. And eventually, in 146 BCE, after Alexander’s successors had been overcome by the growing military power of Rome, Greece became yet another Roman province. Greek Political Vocabulary Greek Word

English Meaning

polis (po/lij), pl. poleis (po/leij) city, city-state demos (dh=moj) the people despotes (despo/thj) master, lord oligoi (o)li/goi) few tyrannos (tu/rannoj) absolute ruler -cracy see Greek suffixes, chapter 6 -archy see Greek suffixes, chapter 6

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Politics, as Usual Ostracism, which now means general exclusion from society or from a particular group, was originally a form of political banishment in ancient Athens. It was so named because the punishment was voted upon by writing a person’s name on a piece of tile (o)/strakon) and depositing it into jars marked “yes” or “no.” In his life of Aristides, a fifth-century BCE Athenian statesman and military leader who is famously portrayed as a man of moral integrity, the Greek biographer Plutarch reports that when, due to a struggle for power in Athens, a vote was being taken on whether or not to exile Aristides, “an illiterate countryman, not recognizing him, handed his ostracon to Aristides and asked him to write ‘Aristides.’ Aristides, amazed, asked what wrong had Aristides ever done him. ‘Nothing at all,’ he said, ‘I don’t even know him, but I am thoroughly annoyed at hearing him called “the Just.”’ When Aristides heard this, he did not respond, but he wrote his name on the ostracon and handed it back.” ostracon (o)/strakon) = tile; potsherd

RO M A N P O L I T I C S

According to tradition, after the founding of the city by Romulus in 753 BCE, the first form of Roman government was monarchy; but after a revolution and the expulsion of the kings in 509 BCE, a republic was established that lasted until the end of the first century BCE. At that time, in the midst of deteriorating political and social conditions, an imperial form of government began to take root, although republican institutions, such as the Senate and the consulship, survived for many centuries. Of course, the emperor always kept his eye on political matters, and often his hand in the state treasury. Roman republican and imperial structures have given their names to many parts of the American system of government. For example, the United States Senate takes its name from the Roman Senatus, which originally meant a group of old men, whereas Congress derives its name from a Latin verb that means “to walk together.” And finally, the laws of this country “stand together” in the Constitution.

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Roman Political Vocabulary Latin Word

English Meaning

civis, civis citizen > civitas, civitatis state congredior-congredi-congressus walk together, meet with one another cf. gradior-gradi-gressum walk imperium, imperii power, command; empire cf. impero-imperare-imperatum command, order and imperator, imperatoris emperor nomino-nominare-nominatum name cf. nomen, nominis name (noun) populus, populi people princeps, principis chief, leader. What are the Latin roots of this word? res publica public matter, republic publicus is actually a contraction of populicus (cf. populus) rex, regis king cf. rego-regere-rectum rule senex, senis old man statuo-statuere-statutum cause to stand, set up in compounds, -stituo-stitutum, cf. sto-stare-statum urbs, urbis city volvo-volvere-volutum turn

Nothing Works Finally, I came to the conclusion that the condition of all existing states is bad—nothing can cure their constitutions, but a miraculous reform assisted by good luck—and I was driven to assert, in praise of true philosophy, that nothing else can enable one to see what is right for states and for individuals, and that the troubles of mankind will never cease until either true and genuine philosophers attain political power or the rulers of states by some dispensation of providence become genuine philosophers. PLATO (fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher), Seventh Letter

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G OV E R N M E N TA L B U R E AU C R AC Y

The Roman state was highly organized not only politically, but economically and socially as well; and over time, the number of administrative offices grew larger and larger. Are you surprised? Just a Few Roman Political Offices consul, consulis = consul, the highest magistrate in the Republic. Two were elected each year. cf. consulo-consulere-consultum = consider, deliberate and consilium, consilii = deliberation, advice censor, censoris = censor, the magistrate in charge of prosecuting crimes involving moral and political offenses, as well as being responsible for the assessment of taxes and the raising of revenues for public works. cf. censeo-censēre-censum = tax, assess tribunus, tribuni = tribune, the magistrate charged with rights and interests of the plebeian class. dictator, dictatoris = dictator. In times of extreme public danger, a dictator might be appointed with supreme power by the Senate for a maximum period of six months. cf. dico-dicere-dictum = say, speak, declare pontifex maximus = the high priest, who was the head of all the official clergy and presided over the religious affairs of the state. pontifex, pontificis = priest maximus, maximi = greatest The word pontifex actually means “bridge maker” (pons, pontis = bridge). The origin of the term is unclear, but some scholars believe that it originally was an individual skilled in the magic of bridge making; others argue that his function was to build a “bridge” between the human and the divine world.

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Purity in Politics . . . The English word candidate derives from the fact that when a Roman ran for political office, he would wear a distinctive white toga (toga candidata) while campaigning in the Forum. cf. candeo-candēre = glow, shine; be clear But Not All That Pure . . . The Forum was the public square and center of Roman civic and religious life, but it was also the place where politicians campaigned, debated, legislated, judged, and incessantly plotted against one another. It was there, on the Ides of March, 44 BCE, that the Roman general and dictator, Julius Caesar, was assassinated, the victim of a conspiracy of Roman senators and his supposed friend and ally, Brutus. It is no wonder that in Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar a fortune-teller warned him, “Beware the Ides of March.” His dying words, Et tu, Brute (“Even you, Brutus”), have come to mean an act of betrayal. Only if the Signs Are Right Perhaps our political system would operate even more efficiently if we followed the Roman method of making public decisions only when what they regarded as divine signs were favorable.The interpreter of these omens, which included the flight of birds, was called the augur; and it was he who decided whether the auspicia allowed the Senate to act, a military leader to make an expedition, or a successful candidate to be installed, or inaugurated, into office.

Vocabulary Latin Word

English Meaning

omen, ominis augur, auguris auspes, auspicis cf. specio-specere-spectum inauguro-inaugurare-inauguratum

sign, omen diviner, prophet interpreter of events through the flight of birds look at take omens; consecrate, dedicate

Whose Side Are You On? A flight of birds that appeared on the right side was taken as a good omen, but one that appeared on the left was a portent of serious trouble ahead. dexter, dexteri = on the right; skillful; favorable sinister, sinistri = on the left; awkward; unfavorable

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Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli, Italy. The Roman emperor Hadrian ruled 117– 138 CE.

United We Stand . . . The seal of the Roman government that appeared on all public documents and that was inscribed on coins, monuments, and the standards of the Roman army was the acronym SPQR, which stood for “Senatus Populusque Romanus.” The twentieth-century fascist dictator of Italy, Benito Mussolini, whose stated aim was to restore Rome to its former imperial greatness, ordered that SPQR be made visible everywhere in Rome. The result was that if you visit the city now, you will find this acronym engraved on manhole covers. Divided We Fall The names of the three social classes of Roman society also have become part of our political vocabulary. Originally, these divisions seem to have been determined by birth; but in later times, membership in a particular class was often based on wealth. Latin Word

English Meaning

patricius, patricii cf. pater, patris optimas, optimates (pl.) eques, equites cf. equus, equi plebs, plebis servus, servi

patrician, a member of the Roman nobility father the best, or most noble; those of high social standing horseman, knight horse the common people. The history of the Republic was marked by the struggle of the plebs for political and economic rights. slave

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We, the People The proletariat consists of those who labor for wages, making their contribution to the state not through the ownership of property, but by the production of children for the labor force. proles, prolis = offspring Theories of Social and Economic Organization with Classical Roots All of the following terms that describe modern social and economic systems were coined or developed their present meanings in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. What is the meaning of the suffix -ism in each of the following terms? English Word

Latin Root

English Meaning

capitalism communism socialism fascism

caput, capitis communis, communis socius, socii fascis, fascis

head common ally, companion stick

The fasces (plural) was a bundle of sticks, bound together, that was carried in front of the chief Roman magistrates, as a symbol both of their power and of the unity of the Roman people.

T H E L AW

One of the greatest and most lasting contributions of ancient Roman civilization to the development of European thought is the vast body of laws and institutions that form the basis of much of modern jurisprudence.This influence can be seen not only in the structure of many European law codes, but also in the very language of the modern legal system. Latin Word

English Meaning

codex, codicis crimen, criminis judex, judicis jus, juris lex, legis

book accusation; the act of which one is accused judge right, law, justice law

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Latin Legal Terminology Used in Modern Law1 Latin Phrase

Latin Meaning

Modern Judicial Usage

alias

at another time

an assumed name

alibi elsewhere, in another place

a defense by which the person accused, in order to prove that he could not have committed the crime with which he is charged, offers evidence to show that he was in another place at the time

bona fide

without deceit or fraud

in good faith

caveat emptor let the buyer beware

the purchaser assumes the risk that goods might be defective or unsuitable to his or her needs

de facto by fact

a state of affairs that exists actually and must be accepted for all practical purposes, but which is illegal or illegitimate.

de jure

legitimate, lawful

by law

habeas corpus have the body

a court order that commands an individual or government official to produce the prisoner at a designated time and place so that the court can determine the legality of custody.

nolo contendere I do not wish to contest

a plea that has the same effect as a plea of guilty, as far as the criminal sentence is concerned, but may not be considered as an admission of guilt for any other purpose

prima facie at first appearance

a lawsuit or criminal prosecution in which the evidence before trial is sufficient to prove the case unless there is substantial contradictory evidence

pro bono publico for the public good

legal work undertaken for the public good, without charge, especially for a client without sufficient financial resources

1. All definitions are taken from Black’s Law Dictionary (thelawdictionary.org).

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Who’s Giving Advice Here? A council and a counsel both give advice, but they have different Latin roots. Check your unabridged dictionary for their etymologies and differences in meaning.

WA R A N D P E AC E

The Roman legal system spread wherever the Roman armies conquered because victory meant the imposition of Roman customs and practices, including, of course, the rule of Roman law. In addition, many veterans, after completing their tours of duty, would settle in the regions where they had been stationed, thus further strengthening Roman control and cultural influence. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

auxilium, auxilii help, aid; troops bellum, belli war miles, militis soldier pax, pacis peace periculum, periculi danger cf. experior-experiri-expertum try, attempt; risk polemos (po/lemoj) war vinco-vincere-victum conquer

Who’s in Charge Here? Some officers took their titles from the number of men they commanded. How many were overseen by a decanus? How many by a centurio?

9 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. In the following sentences, answer each question, or fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 1. What is a plebiscite? ____________________ Who participates in it? __________ 2. What is the science of demography? ____________________ 3. What was the original purpose of a census? ____________________ 4. To whom should regalia properly belong? __________ What is its current meaning? ________ ______________________________________________________________ 5. When I followed the sign that said, “this way to the egress,” where did I end up? __________ 6. The Roman statesman Cicero wrote a work entitled de Senectute. What was it about? __________ 7. If a person pontificates, he speaks in the manner of a __________. What is the current usage of this word? ____________________________________________________________ 8. He said he was invincible, but I knew that he could be easily __________. 9. What happens when tyrannicide is committed? __________ __________ 10. A patrimony is an inheritance from one’s __________. 11. The imperative form of a verb indicates a __________. 12. Civility is the kind of behavior expected of a__________. What is the current usage of this word? _____________________________________________________________________ 13. He wanted to become an equestrian, but he was terrified of __________. 14. What is the current meaning of provincial? ________________________________________ 15. A person who behaves in a servile manner acts like a __________.

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16. The function of a legislature is to __________ the __________. 17. An aristocrat believes in __________ __________. What is the current usage of this word? ___ ________________________________________________________________________ 18. A retrograde motion is one that __________ __________. 19. Many newspapers claim to be the vox populi. What does that mean? ____________________ 20. A demagogue is able to ________ ________ by arousing their emotions. 21. He crashed into a parked car on the day of his driving test. It was not a good sign of what was to come; in fact, you might call it __________. 22. He tried to convince me with his arguments, but I was not about to be __________. 23. When he told me that the signs of success were auspicious, what did he mean? _______________________ 24. What is the literal meaning of metropolis? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________ 25. What is the literal meaning of plebeian? __________ What is its pejorative meaning? _______ _______________________________________________________________ 26. The nominal head of a committee is chairperson in __________ only. 27. If a person speaks with candor, he makes his feelings __________. 28. What is the literal meaning of prolific? __________ __________? What is its current usage? ___ ___________________________________________________________________ 29. The enemy’s bellicose statements made the people fear that __________ was approaching. 30. Auxiliary policemen are __________ agents trained to __________ the regular force. 31. His polemical attack made me feel that he was making __________________ against me. 32. The militant behavior of the protestors made them seem like __________. 33. When the Spanish explorer Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean for the first time, he gave it this name because he thought it was __________. 34. Both the Latin word sinister and the French word gauche have taken on pejorative meanings. What were their original meanings, and what does each mean now? ____________________ ____________________________________________

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35. In ancient Rome, the patricians were regarded as the __________ of the country. What is the current usage of the word? __________ 36. What is the difference in meaning between belligerent and bellicose? _____________________ _________________________________________________ 37. I thought he was my friend, but when he __________ me, I sneered, “et tu, Brute.” 38. Although in ancient Greek, the word despot meant merely master or lord, it has taken on a pejorative meaning in modern English usage. Why do you think this might have happened? ___ ______________________________________________________________________

B. Many legal terms are used in nonjudicial settings. Can you figure out which Latin legal word or phrase applies in the following situations? 39. I had to prove I was somewhere else when the crime was committed. What I needed was a good __________. 40. When you go to a used car dealer, you really have to be careful about buying anything. It’s always a matter of ____________________.. 41. Although he denied that he had eaten the blueberry pie, the purple stains on his shirt established a very good __________ case against him. 42. Although the Supreme Court outlawed segregated schools __________, they can still exist in some areas __________. 43. The application for the job was very long and detailed, but my friend assured me that the place hired everyone, and therefore the process was just __________. 44. He used so many different names at different times that he couldn’t remember which was his own name and which was an __________. 45. A person accused of infidelity is __________ __________. 46. When a dispute is adjudicated, it is decided by turning it over __________ __________. 47. What is the difference in meaning between incriminate and recriminate? __________________ ____________________________________________________

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C. Many Latin-based words in English have undergone many changes in spelling because they first passed into French. What are the Latin roots of the following words and what are their current usages? Use your dictionary to make sure you have the correct etymology. English Word

Latin Root

Current English Meaning

48. loyal

_______________

_____________________________

49. fiancé

_______________

_____________________________

50. chapter

_______________

_____________________________

51. assault

_______________

_____________________________

52. ancestor

_______________

_____________________________

53. surveillance

_______________

_____________________________

54. flour

_______________

_____________________________

What’s in a Name? Very often, words can take on meanings that are termed pejorative because they imply some sense of disparagement or scorn. The vocabulary of politics is filled with such words. During the 1980s, for example, the word liberal was used in some circles in a pejorative sense, while to describe someone as plebeian indicates that you think he is common or has poor taste. But American politicians were not the first to use language in this way. The Late Latin word villanus, which originally meant a farm laborer, has become our English word villain, while the Latin vulgus (crowd) is the root of the English word vulgar. What social attitudes do such usages reveal? Latin Word

English Meaning

pejor, pejoris (comparative of malus = bad) villa, villae vulgus, vulgi

worse farm house the common people, the public; crowd The word mob, meaning an unruly group, is derived from the Latin phrase vulgus mobile (a moving crowd).

10 P s yc h o l o g y

Oedipus and the Sphinx. Fifth century BCE. (Vatican Museum)

Why should a man fear where events of chance rule, and there is clear foreknowledge of nothing? It is best to live without plan, however one might. Do not fear marriage with your mother, for many men already have lain with their mothers in dreams. But these things are nothing to the man who bears life easily. SOPHOCLES (fifth-century BCE playwright), Oedipus Tyrannus

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MODERN THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY

The modern study of psychology includes the investigation of human (and animal) behavior in all its forms and manifestations, although most laymen still tend to view it in the context of the psychoanalytic theories of human action and motivation developed by the early twentieth-century thinkers Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and their successors. The language of psychology has so permeated our contemporary vocabulary that many of these terms have lost their original, narrowly conceived, and specialized meanings. Like the terminology of all of the modern sciences and technologies, the vocabulary is based primarily on learned borrowings from Greek and Latin. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

psyche (yuxh/) spirit, soul as learned borrowing, used as prefix, psycho- mind mens, mentis1 mind anima, animae breath animus, animi soul, mind, courage, passion persona mask sanum, sani healthy, sane

Soul Study In the earliest usage of the word psychology in English (seventeenth century), it meant the study of things concerning the soul. Who Am I? According to Sigmund Freud, the human psyche consists of three interactive components: the id the ego the superego

It. The repository of our instinctual drives that are continuously striving for expression I. That part of the psyche that reacts to and experiences the outside world; our sense of self; consciousness, memory Super (above) + ego. That part of the personality concerned with ethics, and shaped by the moral standard and social ideals of the community

1. Mens, mentis survives in the Romance languages as an adverbial ending—e.g., dolcemente (Italian), dulcimente (Spanish), and doucement (French), all of which mean “sweetly,” are derived from the Latin phrase dulci mente (“with a sweet mind”).

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The god of love, Cupid, and Psyche, the mortal girl whom he saved from death (British Museum)

A N C I E N T P S Y C H O L O G I C A L T H E O RY

In the classical world, many playwrights, poets, and even historians found their source material in ancient myths that vividly described the often complex psychological dynamics within the structure of the family. The Oedipus complex, as presented by Freud and based on the fifth-century BCE play Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles, is perhaps the most well known of such conflicts; but Greek myth provides us with many other examples of the consequences of familial passions, examples that still seem to be psychologically valid 2,500 years later. Thus, the study of classical myth has provided an illumination of the sources of human behavior for modern students of psychology, many of whom see as a primary aim of Greek myths the exposition and resolution of the desires, needs, and conflicts that continue to drive our actions. Several characters from Greek myth, because of their extreme behavior, have given their names to a variety of psychological syndromes. Here are just a few: narcissism: excessive admiration of one’s own physical or mental qualifications. The handsome Narcissus was punished by the gods for his pride and self-absorption. Caused by Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, to fall in love with own reflection in

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a pool, he could not bear to tear himself away, and thus faded into nothingness. All that remained was the flower that carries his name. Electra complex: In psychoanalytic theory, those symptoms are said to be caused by the suppressed sexual desire of a daughter for her father. Electra, daughter of King Agamemnon, conspired with her brother Orestes to murder their mother, Clytemnestra, after Clytemnestra had killed the king. Oedipus complex: According to Freud, the desire of the child for sexual gratification with the parent of the opposite sex. The child often exhibits an intense dislike of the other parent. Oedipus, as you will recall, unwittingly (perhaps) killed his father and married his mother. But then again, as Jocasta, Oedipus’s mother (and wife), says, “In dreams many a man has slept with his mother.” Family Member

Latin Word

Greek Word

mother father brother sister family son, daughter2

mater, matris pater, patris frater, fratris soror, sororis familia, familiae or gens, gentis filius, filii; filia, filiae

mater (mh/thr) pater (path/r) adelphos (a)delfo/j) adelphe (a)delfh/) genos (ge/noj) or genea (genea/)

Be Nice to Your Mother The Latin expression, alma mater, which means nourishing mother, was the phrase used by ancient Romans to describe their country.Today we apply the phrase to the schools we attended because their role is to foster and nourish us intellectually.When you graduate, you can say that, having been nourished by education, you are an alumnus (male; plural alumni) or an alumna (female; plural alumnae). Both alma and alumnus (alumna) are derived from alo-alere = nourish.

L OV E A N D M A R R I AG E

In Greek myth, marriage often proves to be dangerous, indeed, even fatal: Clytemnestra killed her husband, Agamemnon, upon his return from the Trojan War, although 2. There are no English derivatives from the Greek word for son or daughter.

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some argued that it was with good cause. He had sacrificed their daughter Iphigeneia before setting off for Troy, and then brought back a Trojan princess, Cassandra, as part of his booty. Medea had obtained the Golden Fleece for the Greek hero Jason after he promised her marriage, but she murdered their children when Jason divorced her in order to marry another woman. Marital Relationship

Latin Word

Greek Word

marriage matrimonium, matrimonii gamos (ga/moj) wife uxor, uxoris or gyne, gynaecos (gunh)/ or matrona, matronae gamete (gameth/) husband maritus, mariti or aner, andros (a)nh/r) or vir, viri gametes (game/thj) S TAT E S O F F E E L I N G

Love and Desire Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

amo-amare-amatum love cf. amicus, amici friend bonum, boni good cupido, cupidinis desire eros (e)/rwj) love (noun) phileo (file/w) love (verb) verum, veri true

Hatred and Disapproval Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

odium, odii hatred miseo (mise/w) hate as learned borrowing, used as prefix, miso- hating hostilis, hostilis enemy (adj.) cf. hostis, hostis enemy (n.) malum, mali bad fallo-fallere-falsum deceive pseudon (yeu=don) lie as learned borrowing, used as prefix, pseudo- false

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Oh What a Tangled Web We Weave . . . Perhaps the worst offense against the divine was hybris, an expression of insolence so delusional that it might lead one to believe that one’s strength or power was equal to that of the gods. Needless to say, it was always punished. According to Greek myth, Arachne was a beautiful young girl who boasted that her spinning was finer than that of Athena. The two had a contest, and indeed, the work of the mortal girl was better. The goddess flew into a rage and began beating poor Arachne, who, in despair, hung herself. But in a final act of revenge for Arachne’s hybris, Athena turned Arachne into a spider. Arachne’s talent survived her transformation, however, and she continues to spin even now. Arachne (a)ra/xnh) = spider hybris (u(/brij) = shamelessness; in Greek myth, believing that one is the equal to the gods I’m Okay. Are You Okay? Of course, our emotions and behavior may seem to others to be abnormal, and one person’s fear may be another’s madness or uncontrollable desire. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

mania (mani/a) madness phobos (fo/boj) fear insania, insaniae madness cf. sanum, sani healthy

THE FOUR HUMORS

In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, it was commonly believed by Greek and Roman medical practitioners that the body contained four different fluids, or humors. They were yellow bile, black bile, blood, and phlegm. Doctors said that these four humors, when in proper balance, produced good health; but an excess or deficiency of any one of them could cause both physical and mental illness. Even today, derivatives of these words are not only used to describe moods and personality types, but also have become part of the modern psychiatric vocabulary.

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Etruscan sarcophagus lid (Villa Giulia, Rome)

Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning English Derivative

chole (xolh/) yellow bile bilis, bilis yellow bile melancholia (melagxoli/a) black bile cf. melas, melanos (me/laj) black phlegma (fle/gma) phlegm sanguis, sanguinis blood

Meaning

choler bilious melancholy

anger irritable deep sadness

phlegmatic sanguine

apathetic; slow cheerful; hopeful

S TA R WA R S

There were other theories of personality and behavior in antiquity. For example, many people believed (and some still do) that the planets and other heavenly bodies affect human behavior and health, and that individuals born under the signs of particular planets share the temperaments of the gods who ruled over those planets, and who gave the planets their names.

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The Planets and Their Roman Gods Planet/God

Roman Name

Mercury Mercurius, Mercurii Venus Venus,Veneris Mars Mars, Martis Jupiter (Jove) Juppiter, Jovis Saturn Saturnus, Saturni Moon Luna, Lunae

Function winged messenger of the gods, always on the move goddess of love and sexual desire god of war ruler of the gods, who thus had reason to be happy ruler of the gloomy underworld goddess whose changes in form and shape were believed to affect human behavior

But other gods could also affect human and animal behavior. Pan, the Greek god of flocks and herds, liked to play his pipes in the countryside; the shrill high notes would cause the animals to act in peculiar ways. It was also said that he could overwhelm his enemies merely by shouting, for his cry would cause them to feel sudden, unreasonable terror, or panic. SCIENCE AND THE HUMAN MIND

Of course, society today is obsessed with precision and scientific measurement, even in the realm of human behavior. Modern psychology has devised all sorts of means to analyze how and why we act, and has developed systems by which human intelligence is thought to be accurately measured. The Greeks and Romans were not so precise in their measurements, but we still use their vocabulary to describe levels of intellectual ability. Who knows? Perhaps the Greeks and Romans were smarter than we are. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

intellego-intellegere-intellectum understand, distinguish cf. lego-legere-lectum choose, read idion (i)/dion) one’s own, private cf. idio- used as prefix in English, “peculiar to” idiotes (i)diw/thj) private citizen imbecillum, imbecilli weak cf. baculum, baculi stick moron (mwro/n) foolish, stupid sophon (sofo/n) wise

PSYCHOLOGY

Don’t Be Foolish An oxymoron is a figure of speech that joins two terms that are contradictory. Here are two examples: “Jumbo shrimp are pretty ugly.” “He is clearly confused.” o)cu/j = clever, sharp You’re an Idiot! The word idiotes ( i)diw/thj) was applied to those who cared only for their private affairs and did not participate in public life; thus, its meaning became pejorative. “Oxymoron.” © The New Yorker Collection 2000 Peter Steiner from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved.

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. In the following questions, fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of word. Make sure that your sentences are grammatically correct. 1. A magnifying glass __________objects __________. 2. The minimum wage is the __________ amount one can be paid. 3. The mayor of the city is supposed to have __________ power than other officials. 4. Someone who is demented is __________ his __________. 5. Our personalities are really just __________. 6. In a sorority, the members consider themselves to be __________. 7. If you name your dog Fido, you expect him to be _____________. 8. A misogynist __________ __________. 9. Cupid was the Roman god of __________. 10. Inanimate objects do __________ have __________. 11. Genealogy is __________ __________. 12. A person with a martial disposition enjoys __________. 13. An egotist is an individual whose favorite pronoun is ____________. 14. To ameliorate a situation is to make it __________. 15. When philosophers search for the eternal verities, they are looking for those ideas that are always __________. 16. An ultimatum is a __________ proposal or demand. 17. A pessimist is always sure that the __________ will happen. 18. An optimist always thinks the __________ about circ*mstances.

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19. He made a fallacious argument because he wanted to __________ me. 20. His erratic behavior made me think that his mind was __________. 21. He was so arrogant that even his friends thought him guilty of __________. 22. He was found guilty of bigamy when he admitted that he had __________ __________. 23. His infamous behavior brought __________ to his family. 24. His odious behavior caused everyone to __________him. 25. Idiosyncratic behavior is __________ an individual. 26. A Francophile__________ all things French. 27. The pseudonymous author used a __________ __________ because he did not wish to reveal his identity. 28. Psychosis is a diseased condition of the __________. 29. I knew I had performed badly, but his pejorative comments made me feel __________.

B. Answer the following questions. If you are not sure of the answers, check your unabridged dictionary. 30. Philosophers have always discussed the summum bonum. What is it? __________ __________ 31. Of what crime are you guilty if you kill your brother? __________ 32. Where should your superiors be? __________ 33. In the counting of votes, what is the difference between a plurality and a majority? __________ __________________________________________________ 34. What is the literal meaning of matriarchy? __________ __________What is its current usage? ____________________ 35. What is the difference between sanguine and sanguinary? ______________________________ ________________________________________ 36. What is the literal meaning of animus? __________What is its current usage? _____________ _________________________________________________________

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37. What is the difference in meaning between amiable and amicable? ______________________ ________________________________________________ 38. What is the meaning of the Latin phrase persona non grata? ____________________ 39. What do the etymologies of the words matrimony and matron tell us about the ancient Roman understanding of the purpose of marriage? ______________________________ 40. Their marital bliss was shattered when he committed uxoricide.What had he done? __________ __________ 41. What kind of cell is a gamete? __________ 42. What is the literal meaning of patrimony? __________What is its current usage? __________ 43. I know it’s not really true, but it seems to me that every time the moon is full, people act like__________. 44. His moronic behavior convinced me that he was a __________. How would you characterize someone whose personality can be characterized as: 45. jovial

____________________

46. saturnine

____________________

47. mercurial

____________________

What are the following fears, forms of madness, or desires? 48. monomania

__________

56. egomania

__________

49. megalomania

__________

57. dipsomania

__________

50. pyromania

__________

58. kleptomania

__________

51. gamophobia

__________

59. agoraphobia

__________

52. xenophobia

__________

60. acrophobia

__________

53. claustrophobia

__________

61. bibliophilia

__________

54. ailurophobia

__________

62. gynophobia

__________

55. ponophobia

__________

63. triskaidekaphobia

__________

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C. By now, you should be able to recognize Romance language cognates of Latin words. Without consulting a dictionary, see if you can figure out the English meanings of each of the following French (F.), Spanish (S.), or Italian (I.) words. 64. rey (S. noun)

__________

70. dire (F. verb)

__________

65. amigo (S. noun)

__________

71. odio (I. and S. noun)

__________

66. malo (S. adjective)

__________

72. con (I. and S. prep.)

__________

67. animato (I. adjective)

__________

73. padre (S. noun)

__________

68. faire (F. verb)

__________

74. verdad (S adjective)

__________

69. fratello (I. noun)

__________

Compared to What? The comparative and superlative forms of Latin adjectives can also have English derivatives. Positive

Comparative Superlative

bonus, boni = good melior = better exter, exteri = outside exterior = outer cf. adverb extra magnus, magni = large major = larger malus, mali = bad pejor = worse multus, multi = much plus, pluris = more parvus, parvi = small minor/minus = smaller superus, superi = above superior = higher cf. preposition super ulter, ultri = beyond ulterior = farther cf. adverb ultra

optimus = best extremus = outermost, farthest maximus = largest pessimus = worst plurimus = most minimus = smallest supremus or summus = highest or last ultimus = farthest, last

The preceding adjectives are irregular in the formation of their comparative and superlative forms; the regular superlative ending is -issimus (-issima, -issimum). How does that ending appear in the various Romance languages?

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It’s My Fault If you need to apologize, but want to show off at the same time, you can always say mea culpa. culpa, culpae fault, blame No, It’s Not The legal term non compos mentis can be applied to mentally ill individuals who do not have the capacity to reason or to manage one’s affairs. It is sometimes used as a defense argument for a plea that the defendant cannot be held legally responsible for his actions. non compos mentis = not of sound mind

11 The Social Sciences

Triumphal arch of the emperor Septimius Severus (Rome). Septimius Severus ruled 193–211 CE.

hom*o sum. Humani nihil a mē alienum puto. “I am human. I think that nothing human is strange to me.” TERENCE (second-century BCE Roman comic playwright), The Self-Tormentor

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T H E O RY A N D P R AC T I C E

In most college and university catalogs, the departments of political science and psychology can be found under the heading of the social sciences, those disciplines whose practitioners observe, analyze, and formulate theories about the behavior of people in specific groups and situations, individuals in their relationship to others, and the etiology of other kinds of social phenomena. Some of the social sciences are relatively new—the term sociology was first used to mean the scientific study of society in the early nineteenth century—while others, such as anthropology, have their roots in the ancient Greek curiosity about the non-Greek world. Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

etia (ai)ti/a) cause solvo-solvere-solutum loosen, untie, release phenomenon (faino/menon) a thing come to light; appearance; in scientific terminology, the learned borrowing pheno- = shining socius, socii ally, companion theoria (qewri/a) viewing; speculation; contemplation modus, modi measure, manner, way paradigma (para/deigma) pattern schema (sxh=ma) form, shape, figure A N T H RO P O L O G Y It is clear that the most gold by far is in the northern part of Europe, but how it is obtained, I can not say with certainty. It is said that the one-eyed Arimaspians steal it from the griffins; but I do not believe in one-eyed men who in all other ways are like the rest of men. HERODOTUS (fifth-century BCE Greek historian), Inquiries iii.116

Anthropology is the study of human culture in all its aspects: social organization, economic and political systems, linguistics, and prehistory. Although the ancient Greeks were intensely curious about the customs and practices of non-Greeks (whom they lumped together under the general heading of ba/rbaroi), it was not until the eighteenth century that the modern discipline of anthropology began to take shape. In part, it found its intellectual origins in the ideal of the European Enlightenment— one that emphasized “reason” over tradition and taught that scientific methods could be applied to the study of human society—and in part through colonialism, which

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brought Europeans into direct contact with the cultures of North and South America, Africa, and Asia. It was believed by these earliest practitioners of the discipline that the origins of the structures of “modern” European society could be understood by exploring those of the cultures that they considered to be less developed, or even “primitive.” Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

anthropos (a)/nqrwpoj) man, mankind barbaroi (ba/rbaroi) all who were not Greek colo-colere-cultum till (the soil); inhabit; take care of; practice > colonia, coloniae estate; settlement ethnos (e)/qnoj) nation, people > ethnicos (e)qniko/j) foreign

SOCIOLOGY Culture is roughly anything we do that monkeys don’t. Attributed to Lord Raglan, a nineteenth-century British general

Sociology, yet another product of the Enlightenment, had its origins in the attempt to apply the rational methodology of the natural sciences to the study of the social lives of people, groups, and societies. Today the discipline focuses on the study of social behavior through the empirical and systematic examination of social institutions and organizations that influence human action and cultural identity. For if it were proposed to all peoples to choose the best customs out of all, after close examination, they would each choose their own as best. HERODOTUS (fifth-century BCE Greek historian), Inquiries iii.38

Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

empiron ( e)/mpeiron) experienced organon (o)/rganon) instrument, tool; work, project signum, signi sign, seal, mark systema (su/sthma) the whole; composition

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Utopia The social sciences sometimes make a claim for the relevance and applicability of their models to the solution of human social problems. Nevertheless, despite the efforts of sociologists, political theorists, economists, and other social thinkers, we are still faced with the paradox that our scientific study of human behavior, in all its forms, has not yet produced the ideal society. Perhaps, sadly, the sixteenth-century philosopher Sir Thomas More was correct in calling his ideal society Utopia. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

plico-plicere-plicatum fold idea (i)de/a) form, class, kind topos (to/poj) place; topic ou or u (ou)) not

ECONOMICS He thought that there was no other kind of enjoyment of riches and money than extravagance, and that only stingy and despicable men kept a correct account of what they spent, while fine and truly great men wasted and squandered. SUETONIUS (first-century CE), Life of the Emperor Nero

Although the ownership of real property remained the aristocratic standard of wealth until the end of antiquity, as early as the second millennium BCE, Greek merchants grew prosperous by trading with the various peoples who lived around the shores of the Mediterranean, while Greek adventurers who had hired themselves out as mercenaries brought back some of the remarkable wares of Egypt and the East. Some historians have suggested that the Trojan War, far from being a battle over the beautiful Helen, was actually a struggle over competing economic spheres of influence. The high finances of bonds, stock options, and mergers and acquisitions may have been unknown to the Greeks and the Romans, but lucrative trade, commerce, and speculative investment flourished in the classical world. Because the land was poor, and perhaps because life at home was sometimes dangerous, sometimes dull, the Greeks often left home to seek their fortunes. Perhaps the most famous Greek adventurer was the mythical hero Odysseus; but others sought an easier and, perhaps, more profitable life in Asia Minor, the home not only of the legendary king Midas, but also of Croesus, the sixth-century BCE Lydian king who is credited with having invented money.

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The conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE extended the Greek view as far as India; and where Greek armies went, traders and merchants soon followed. Although Alexander’s empire did not outlast his lifetime, contact between East and West continued in the Roman period. The profits generated by the sale of agricultural products, such as grain and olive oil, as well as the demand for expensive luxury goods, allowed at least a few Romans to accumulate a great deal of money. The government held the monopolies on some industries; but, by and large, business was a matter of “caveat emptor.” Those few Romans who could afford it (and some who could not) often indulged in conspicuous consumption and an opulent lifestyle. Consumer debt and fraud were probably invented by the Romans; and by late antiquity, inflation was rampant and prices sky-high. Moneylenders charged extremely high rates of interest to those who were insolvent and on the edge of bankruptcy. A coherent fiscal policy, including a budget, seems to have been nonexistent throughout most of Roman history. In order to meet its obligations (and the indulgences of its emperors), the state raised money through a variety of means, including expropriation of property; conquest; and, of course, taxation. The eventual collapse of the Roman economy is a depressingly all-too-familiar story. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

copia, copiae supply, abundance ecos (oiÅkoj) house, household as a learned borrowing in science eco- environment emporion (e)mpo/rion) market flo-flare-flatum blow > inflo-inflare-inflatum swell fraus, fraudis deceit haereo-haerēre-haesum stick, cling to lucrum, lucri profit mercor-mercari-mercatum trade and merces, mercedis pay, wages pendo-pendere-pensum hang proprium, proprii one’s own, special; fitting, proper specio-specere-spectum look at in compounds, -spicio, -spicere taxo-taxare-taxatum tax cf. tango-tangere-tactum touch

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Bound captive (Hadrian’s Forum, Rome)

She’s Worth Her Salt Roman soldiers were given an allowance to buy salt (sal, salis), an important commodity in the ancient world, and used primarily as a preservative. The allowance was called a salarium. The word was then applied to any payment for work. Let This Be a Warning to You The first mint in Rome was located in the temple of Juno Moneta, so named, the Romans believed, because when the city had been threatened with invasion, the sacred geese of the goddess had warned them. moneo-monēre-monitum = warn

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Mary Had a Little Lamb In the ancient world, before the “invention” of money, wealth was measured by one’s material possessions, especially flocks of sheep or herds of cattle.The word for “herd” or “flock” thus became the etymological root of the Latin word for “money.” That which belonged to you was your peculium (private property). pecu = flock, herd > pecunia, pecuniae = money And in Conclusion, a Word from Our Sponsor The ancient economy seems to have managed quite well without the aid of advertising, subliminal or otherwise, although some of the Roman emperors probably could have used some media enhancement and better public-service announcements to improve their image. Latin Word

English Meaning

claudo-claudere-clausum close in compounds, -cludo-cludere-clusum spondeo-spondēre-sponsum pledge, promise limen, liminis threshold medium, medii middle; in the open; public nuntio-nuntiare-nuntiatum announce imago, imaginis copy, likeness

1 1 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Answer each question or fill in the blanks with the literal meaning of the italicized word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 1. Empirical knowledge comes from __________. 2. The teacher said I was a paradigm of good behavior, a __________to be followed. 3. A systemic infection affects the __________of the body. 4. When I was absolved of the crime, I was __________ __________any blame. 5. A significant event __________ __________on history. 6. When asked to moderate her voice, she began to speak in __________tones. 7. She gave me a schematic drawing of the machine, so that I could see its __________. 8. An impecunious person has __________ __________. 9. What is the connection between a herd of cows and money? ____________________ 10. Tangible results are__________ __________. 11. A mercenary individual is interested only in __________. 12. What is the literal meaning of topography? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________ 13. Our tactile sense is stimulated by __________. 14. An adherent __________ __________his beliefs. 15. New York City may be called an emporium because it is a __________ of ideas. 16. In a conflation of accounts of an event, the details have been __________ __________. 17. What is the difference in meaning between appropriate (verb) and appropriate (adjective)? __________________________________________________

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18. A lucrative business is one that shows a __________. 19. We now use the word mediocre in a pejorative way. What is its literal meaning? __________ What is its current usage? ______________________________________________________ 20. You defrauded me of my life savings when you took them __________ me by__________. 21. What is the literal meaning of despondent? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________ Can you figure out how it came to take on this usage? _____________________ _________________________________________________ 22. When medical science looks for the etiology of a disease, it is seeking its __________. 23. What are two different usages of cultivate? __________; __________ 24. Subliminal advertising influences us by going __________ __________ of our consciousness. 25. What is the literal meaning of the term macroeconomics? ____________________What is its current usage? ______________________________ 26. Where is Utopia? ____________

B. Everywhere I turn . . . What are the literal meanings and current usages of each of the following words? English Word

Literal Meaning

Current English Usage

27. subversion

____________________

28. perverse

____________________

29. reversion

____________________

30. diversionary

____________________

31. converse

____________________

32. aversion

____________________

33. incontrovertible

____________________

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

C. Fold in the following prefixes . . . What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words? English Word

Literal Meaning

Current English Usage

34. replication

____________________

35. supplication

____________________

36. implication

____________________

37. complicated

____________________

38. duplicitous

____________________

39. compliant

____________________

40. explicate

____________________

D. It All Depends . . . What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words? English Word

Literal Meaning

Current English Usage

41. impend

____________________

42. depend

____________________

43. expense

____________________

44. pensive

____________________

45. suspense

____________________

46. compendium

____________________

47. pendulous

____________________

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E. It All Depends on How You Look at It . . . What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words? English Word

Literal Meaning

Current English Usage

48. introspective

____________________

49. prospective

____________________

50. retrospective

____________________

51. spectacular

____________________

52. perspective

____________________

53. circ*mspect

____________________

54. perspicacious

____________________

F. Let Me Count the Change What are the Latin roots of the following currencies? 55. the English pound

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56. the Italian lira

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57. the Spanish peseta

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Asclepius, the Greek god of healing and patron deity of physicians (National Museum, Athens)

Life is short, science is long; opportunity is elusive, experiment is dangerous, judgment is difficult. It is not enough for the physician to do what is necessary, but the patient and the attendants must do their part as well, and circ*mstances must be favorable. APHORISMS I.1 (Hippocratic Corpus)

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MODERN MEDICINE AND ANCIENT TERMINOLOGY

Perhaps no other area that affects our lives demonstrates so clearly the influence of Greek and Latin on English vocabulary as does the field of medicine. Although new diseases are defined and new technologies devised every day, medicine has created for itself an inexhaustible source for an expanding terminology by continually drawing upon Greek and Latin roots.1 T H E H U M A N B O DY It is not possible to look at the constituent parts of human beings, such as blood, flesh, bones, blood-vessels and the like without considerable distaste. ARISTOTLE, On the Parts of Animals

The human biological and medical sciences have thoroughly investigated the functions and operations of every part of the human body. They have taught us that the body is a wonderful machine that is extraordinarily efficient (most of the time). It is composed of over 200 bones, 700 muscles, and approximately five quarts of blood, and it is covered by about twenty-five square feet of skin. In addition, it possesses a remarkably intricate nervous system, as well as a multitude of organs that carry on vital functions within the machine. English Word Latin Word

Greek Word

life blood body bone muscle nerve skin

bios (bi/oj) biohema, hematos (ai(=ma) hema- or hemato-; -emia soma, somatos (sw=ma) somatoosteon (o)ste/on) osteomys, myos (mu=j) myoneuron (neu=ron) neuroderma, dermatos (de/rma) dermato-

vita, vitae sanguis, sanguinis corpus, corporis os, ossis musculus, musculi nervus, nervi cutis, cutis

Combining Form

1. Note that most specialized medical terms are derived from Greek, rather than Latin, vocabulary. Almost all English compound forms derived from Greek that are used in medical terminology are learned borrowings.

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Shake, Rattle, and Roll Many bones of the human body derive their names from their seeming resemblance to other objects. For example, the collar bone, or clavicle, was thought by early anatomists to resemble the shape of a key, while the shinbone was called a tibia because of its similarity in form to a flute. And if you hearing ringing in your ears, that’s because the auditory ossicles are called the malleus, incus, and stapes. Latin Word

English Meaning

clavus, clavi patella, patellae tibia, tibiae fibula, fibulae malleus, mallei incus, incudis stapes, stapis

key > collarbone. What does the -cle ending indicate? small pan > kneecap flute > shinbone buckle, clamp > leg bone that extends from knee to ankle hammer anvil stirrup

Like all machines, however, the human body is subject to occasional breakdowns (despite the classical ideal of sana mens in corpore sano).When this happens, we visit the doctor; and sometimes, we may even end up as patients in the hospital. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

hygieia (u(gi/eia) health salus, salutis health sanum, sani healthy mens sana in corpore sano a sound mind in a sound body iatros (i)atro/j) doctor, physician medicus, medici healer doceo-docēre-doctum show, teach -logist specialist (learned borrowing), cf. -logy hospes, hospitis host; guest, stranger morbus, morbi illness patior-pati-passum suffer, endure cf. pascho (pa/sxw) suffer, endure > pathos (pa/qoj) suffering, misfortune

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Is That English? The French word jargon originally meant the chattering of birds, but now means a specialized vocabulary used by a particular group or profession that is difficult for others to understand. For example, when the doctor explains,“I’m afraid you have a rather severe bilateral probital hematoma,” what he really is saying is “Wow! What a horrific-looking black eye.”

M E D I C A L S P E C I A LT I E S

Today, of course, most doctors are specialists. There are seemingly as many specialties in medicine as there are parts of the human body, but we can get to the heart of the matter if we are willing to be patient. Let’s start at the top and come face to face with what may be bothering us. English Word

Latin Word

head caput, capitis brain cerebrum, cerebri eye oculus, oculi ear auris, auri nose nasus, nasi mouth os, oris tooth dens, dentis tongue lingua, linguae

Greek Word

Combining Form

cephale (kefalh/) cephaloencephalos (e)gke/faloj) encephaloophthalmos (o)fqalmo/j) ophthalmoous, otos (ou)=j) otorhis, rhinos (r(i/j) rhinostoma, stomatos (sto/ma) stomatoodous, odontos (o)dou/j) odontoglossa (glw=ssa) glossoor glotta (glw=tta) glotto-

Hermon of Thasus. His blindness was cured by Asclepius. But, since afterward he did not bring the thank-offerings, the god made him blind again.When he came back and slept again in the Temple, the god made him well. —inscription from the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, Greece

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There are doctors who attempt to straighten us out or get us back on our feet: Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

orthon (o)rqo/n) straight pes, pedis foot pous, podos (pou/j) foot skeletos (skeleto/j) dried up; mummy therapeia (qerapei/a) service; care

There are doctors who specialize in the diseases of particular organs: English Word

Latin Word

belly abdomen, abdominis stomachus, stomachi heart cors, cordis kidney renum, reni liver lung pulmo, pulmonis

Greek Word

Combining Form

enteron (e)/nteron) enterogaster, gastros (gasth/r) gastrocardia (kardi/a) cardionephros (nefro/j) nephrohepar, hepatos (h(/par) hepatopneumon (pneumw/n) pneumo-

Take a Deep Breath South Carolina’s state motto is dum spiro spero. “As long as I am breathing, I have hope.” spiro-spirare-spiratum breathe spero-sperare-speratum hope

Other doctors specialize in particular age groups or in a particular gender: Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

femina, feminae woman gyne, gynecos (gunh/) woman aner, andros (a)nh/r) man anthropos (a)/nqrwpoj) man, human being hom*o, hominis man, human being vir, viri man senex, senis old man geron, gerontos (ge/rwn) old man juvenis, juvenis young person puer, pueri child (boy) pes, pedos (pai=j) child

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Hippocratic Oath The oath that medical students take today has its origins in Greek medicine. Called the Hippocratic Oath, it is attributed to one of the most famous of ancient Greek healers, Hippocrates. I swear by Apollo, the healer, by Asclepius, by Hygieia and Panacea and all the divinities of healing, and call to witness all the gods and goddesses that I may keep this oath and promise to the best of my ability and judgment . . . that I will use my power to help the sick to the best of my ability and judgment; that I will abstain from harming or wronging anyone by it. . . . If, therefore, I observe this oath and do not violate it, may I prosper both in my life and my art, gaining good repute among all men for all time. If I transgress and forswear this oath, may my lot be otherwise.

Deity Function Apollo Greek god of light, prophecy, healing; but also the deity who brought disease Asclepius half-divine son of Apollo, and patron of Greek physicians. Not content with healing the sick, he attempted to bring the dead back to life. For this act, Zeus struck him down with a thunderbolt. In ancient Greece, he was honored as the patron deity of physicians. Hygieia The daughter of Asclepius, and worshipped as the personification of health Panacea “All-Healer,” said by some to be the daughter of Asclepius

D I AG N O S I S A N D T R E AT M E N T

Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

gnosis (gnw=sij) knowledg cf. nosco-noscere-notum know bacterion (bakth/rion) rod, stick cf. bacillus, bacilli small rod frango-frangere-fractum break fungus, fungi sponge cf. sphongos (sfo/ggoj) sponge

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English Meaning

trauma, traumatos (trau=ma) wound virus, viri poison -osis2 diseased condition of, state of -itis inflammation of -oma swelling -iasis diseased condition of 3 -pathy diseased condition; treatment -plegia paralysis cf. plege (plhgh/) blow -algia pain cf. algos (a/)lgoj) pain -odynia pain cf. odyne (o)du/nh) pain -rrhea flow or discharge cf. rheo (r(e/w) flow -gen production of cf. genos (ge/noj) birth, source -genic producing manus, manūs hand opsis (o)/yij) sight cf. opteuo (o)pteu/w) see, look at -tomy cutting, incision < tomos (tomo/j) cutting -ectomy cutting out, removal -stomy making an opening < stoma (sto/ma) mouth, opening

Take Two Pills and Call Me in the Morning When you go to the pharmacy to fill a prescription, be very careful. The root of the word is pharmakos (farmako/j) = poisoner.

2.The endings -osis, -itis, -oma, and -iasis were used in ancient Greek to form nouns, but they have been arbitrarily assigned these meanings in modern medical practice. 3. Learned borrowing from Greek: cf. pathos (pa/qoj) = suffering. In compound forms, used as a suffix = disease, condition. It is also used in names or systems of treating disease, e.g., osteopathy.

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Sometimes, all it takes is a good night’s sleep to make us feel better . . . Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

valeo-valēre be strong, be in good health > valesco What does the suffix -sco indicate? hypnos (u(/pnoj) sleep coma (kw=ma) deep sleep somnus, somni sleep sopor, soporis deep sleep Morpheus the son of Somnus, he was the bringer of dreams, and given the name because of the various forms he could assume. cf. morphe (morfh/) shape, form

Mosaic “skull,” representing the finality of death. It was uncovered in the dining room of a house in Pompeii, Italy. (Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples)

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but it doesn’t cure everything, for we are mortal . . . Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

mors, mortis death < morior, mori, mortuum die thanatos (qa/natoj) death

Remember: de mortuis, nil nisi bonum: about the dead, (speak) nothing but good.

Perseus slaying the gorgon Medusa. Sixth century BCE (Selinunte, Sicily)

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Dig in Your Heels . . . Sometimes a word goes through so many changes of meaning that its original root is unnoticed. Recalcitrant, which now means unmanageable or stubborn, is derived from the Latin calx, calcis = heel of the foot.The verb recalcitrare originally meant to kick back one’s heels, and was applied to horses. Or Change Your Mind! Some words are nice to know just because they sound so interesting. Tergiversate means to change one’s mind or opinion, but its literal meaning is derived from tergum, tergi (back) verso-versare-versatum (turn) If you don’t turn your back on an idea, you may turn your mind toward it in a critical way. Thus, we have the verb animadvert, which originally meant to take notice of, but which has now come to mean to criticize, or pay attention in a negative way. Looks Can Wound, and Words Can Hurt! A supercilious individual is contemptuous of others and demonstrates it by raising his eyebrows, and sarcastic words can seem to tear at our skin. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

supercilium, supercilii cf. cilium, cilii sarx, sarcos (sa/rc) >sarcazo (sarka/zw)

eyebrow eyelash flesh tear flesh

Living Well Is the Best Revenge Leading a healthy lifestyle is all very well and good, but perhaps the French bon vivant who is leading the Italian la dolce vita has a better time. Of course one could just shrug one’s shoulders and say, “C’est la vie.” What is the Latin root of these words, and what do these expressions mean? Ave Atque Vale! The Roman equivalent of “have a good day” was the phrase avē atque valē. Although both imperative forms mean “be well” or “strong,” they also came to be used as a word of greeting or of good-bye. Thus, the phrase is often translated as “Hail and farewell!” aveo-avēre = be well Of course, not everyone was so joyful about saying goodbye. Gladiators about to enter into the arena faced the emperor and declared, “Ave, Imperator. Nos morituri te salutamus.” (“Hail, Emperor. We who are about to die salute you.”)

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An Ounce of Protection Although modern medicine emphasizes the prevention of disease through immunization, diet, and good health habits, many things can go wrong with the human body. The medical profession, however, offers a variety of approaches to diagnose, treat, and cure illness, or at least to alleviate it. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

dieta (di/aita) levis, levis munus, muneris

way of life light, easy gift, reward

Holy Cow! For millennia, smallpox was a dreaded disease that caused hundreds of millions of deaths in every part of the world. In 1796, the English physician Edward Jenner tested the common opinion that dairymaids who had contracted cowpox, a much milder disease, from the infected udders of cows, had immunity to smallpox. In what was a perhaps medically unethical experiment, he inoculated a small boy with cowpox; the boy recovered rather quickly, with no lasting effects. Two months later, Jenner inoculated the boy with pus from a smallpox lesion, but the child did not develop the disease. vacca, vaccae = cow

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Answer each question or fill in the blanks with the literal meaning of the underlined word or part of the word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 1. A sanguivorous animal __________ __________. 2. What is the Latin cognate of sympathy? __________ 3. A corpuscle is a __________ __________. 4. An ossuary is __________ __________are kept. 5. Psychosomatic medicine examines the interaction of the __________ and __________. 6. What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words? English Word

Literal Meaning

Current Usage

empathy ____________________ ____________________ sympathy ____________________ ____________________ apathy

____________________ ____________________

antipathy ____________________ ____________________ 7. A subcutaneous injection is given__________ __________. 8. A corpulent individual is __________ __________. 9. The doctor said he could not detect my vital signs, but I was sure I was still __________. 10. A patient is supposed to __________ his illness. 11. If you move to a salubrious climate, you hope that it will bring you __________.

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12. What are the following medical specialties? dermatology ____________________ hematology ____________________ neurology

____________________

13. A sanitarium is __________an individual hopes to become __________. 14. The Latin cognate of hypodermic is __________. 15. If an individual’s beliefs have become ossified, they have been __________as hard as __________. 16. A misanthrope is a person who __________ __________. 17. Is it possible that the Roman poet P. Ovidius Naso had a prominent __________? 18. Binoculars enable us to see with __________ __________. 19. Someone who is cerebral uses her __________. 20. What is the distinguishing feature of the following: octopus __________

centipede

__________

tripod __________

biped

__________

21. What skill does a multilingual individual possess? __________ __________What is the Greek cognate of multilingual? __________ 22. Rhinoplasty is an elegant name for a __________. 23. An electroencephalogram is __________ about the activity of the __________. 24. A pulmonary function test measures the capacities of your __________. 25. A captain is the __________ of a military unit. 26. Cordial feelings arise in the __________. 27. A periodontist takes care of the area __________ __________. 28. A gastronome is __________ his __________. 29. What is the aural/oral method of learning a foreign language? __________________________ __________________________________

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30. What is the literal meaning of anemia? __________ __________ What is its current medical usage? ____________________What is its meaning in the following sentence: The stock market’s performance today was anemic. ____________________ 31. An androgynous creature displays characteristics of both __________ and __________. 32. A mortuary is__________ __________. 33. A traumatic experience is one that __________ you. 34. Odontalgia is an elegant word for __________ __________. 35. The nineteenth-century American poet William Cullen Bryant wrote a work entitled Thanatopsis. What was its theme? __________ __________ 36. A prognosticator thinks he can __________the future __________ it happens. 37. Iatrogenic illness is __________ the __________. 38. A manuscript is a document that has been __________ by __________. 39. If your teacher’s lecture acts as a soporific, it may __________ you __________. 40. An agnostic says the proof of the existence of an ultimate cause of the universe is __________ able to be __________. 41. A post mortem examination is done __________ __________. 42. If you agree to an encephalectomy, your __________ will be __________. 43. A malleable metal can be __________ into a shape. What does the word mean when applied to an individual? __________ 44. A valedictory address is one that __________ __________. 45. “To be in the arms of Morpheus” is an elegant way of saying that you are __________. 46. A gerontologist __________ the behavior and health of __________. 47. Senility is a disease of __________. 48. While I watched in horror, that well-behaved child suddenly morphed into a monster. What is the Greek root of this word and what is its meaning in this sentence? ___________________ _________________________________________________________

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49. His puerile behavior made me realize that although he was a grown man, emotionally he was still a __________. 50. My remuneration for the job was so small that I did not feel __________ for my work. 51. His virulent remarks against me made me feel as if I had been __________. 52. A somniloquist __________ while he is __________. What does a somnambulist do? ____________________ 53. Although the politicians said the law would be a panacea for our problems, I knew it would not be a __________. 54. A muscle supposedly resembles a __________ __________in its movement. 55. What is the ordinary usage of the word morbid? __________ In medical terminology, what is its usage? __________ 56. When my mother threatened to decapitate me if I did not clean my room, I knew she would take my__________ __________ my body. 57. What is the difference in meaning between sanguine and sanguinary? ____________________ ______________________________ 58. Under a system of primogeniture, the __________ __________ inherits his parents’ property. 59. In order to display valor in a difficult situation, one must be __________ in spirit. 60. What is a valetudinarian? ____________________ 61. Maintain entered into English through French. Can you figure out its Latin roots? __________ 62. What are the two different meanings of invalid? ________________________________________ ________________________________________ 63. In the following sentence, what is the meaning of the word pathos? “The pathos I felt when I heard her sing was overwhelming.” ____________________ 64. What does a pathogen do? __________ __________ 65. I am senescent, and now I am afraid that I am suffering from all the symptoms of ________ __________.

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66. He was such an awful person that although he was dead, I could not say one good thing about him. What Latin adage was I ignoring? ______________________________

B. How Many Things Can You Break? People and things can be broken in a number of ways. What are the current English meanings of the following words? 67. fragment

__________

71. fraction

__________

68. fractious

__________

72. refract

__________

69. infraction

__________

73. frangible

__________

70. frail

__________

74. fragile

__________

C. Watch Where You Throw That Thing! Sometimes a doctor will recommend an injection of a drug in order to relieve your symptoms or even to effect a cure. jacio-jacere-jactum

throw, heal

in compound form, jecere-jectum

English Word

Literal Meaning

Current Usage

75. dejected

____________________

76. conjecture

____________________

77. ejection

____________________

78. trajectory

____________________

79. abject

____________________

80. interjection

____________________

81. project (noun)

____________________

82. project (verb)

____________________

83. objective

____________________

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D. Don’t Confuse Me In order to be a successful doctor, you will need to learn all these medical diagnoses and treatments. What are the following diseases, medical conditions, and treatments? 84. pericarditis

____________________

85. neuropathy

____________________

86. myalgia

____________________

87. glossectomy

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Mosaic from Hadrian’s villa (Museo Capitolino, Rome)

When I reached the sanctuary, the god Asclepius bade me further to cover my head in rainy weather, wash myself without the aid of a servant, take exercise in the gymnasium, eat bread, cheese, celery and cabbage lettuce, drink lemon juice and milk, go for walks and not to omit to make sacrifice. AELIUS ARISTIDES (second-century CE Greek orator)

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A DVA N C E D M E D I C A L T R A I N I N G

In the preceding chapter, we surveyed all the major organs of the human body as well as the variety of ailments that might afflict them; but for those who wish to continue their medical education, what follows is an overview of the major systems, or structures to which those organs belong.1 Once again, Greek and Latin roots provide the necessary language for labeling their various components and functions. Although many of these words have come into English unchanged, some of the words included in this chapter are learned borrowings. Indeed, ancient Greek and Roman physicians sometimes had an imperfect understanding not only of human anatomy, but of the functions of various organs and systemic processes. T H E C I R C U L AT O RY S Y S T E M

The circulatory, or cardiovascular, system consists of the heart and blood vessels. Greek or Latin Word

Original Meaning

Current English Usage

vena, venae vein vein phleps, phlebos (fle/y) vein vein arteria (a)rthri/a) windpipe artery vas, vasis vessel vessel corona, coronae crown coronary lympha, lymphae fluid; water lymph

Combining Form venophleboarteriovasocoronolympho-

The arterial system got its name from the fact that the ancient Greeks believed that the arteries carried air. aer (a)h/r) = air

T H E R E S P I R AT O RY S Y S T E M

The respiratory system includes all those organs necessary for the taking in of oxygen and the giving off of carbon dioxide.

1.Medical and anatomical terms already given in chapter 12 are not repeated here.

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Greek or Latin Word

Original Meaning

Current English Usage

spiro-spirare-spiratum breathe breathe pneo (pne/w) breathe breathe pneumon (pneu/mwn) lung lung jugulum, juguli throat throat pharynx (fa/rugc) throat passageway for air and food trachea (traxei=a) rough windpipe bronchia (bro/gxia) tubes bronchia pleura (pleu=ra) side; rib pleura diaphragma (dia/fragma) partition; midriff diaphragm or fren (frh/n) midriff; mind diaphragm, mind thorax (qw/rac) breastplate chest

Combining Form spiropneopneumojugulopharyngotracheobronchipleurophrenothoraco-

It’s Not All in Your Head The Greeks believed that the center of emotions and the home of the mind were in the diaphragm [phren (frh/n = diaphragm]. From this notion we derive frenzy, frenetic, phrenology, and schizophrenia. What are the current meanings of these words?

T H E D I G E S T I V E S YS T E M

The digestive system includes all the organs necessary for taking in, breaking down, and absorbing food. Greek or Latin Word

Original Meaning

Current English Usage

digero-digerere-digestum pepto (pe/ptw) intestinum, intestini

separate; divide soften; cook internal; intestine

digest digest intestine

The intestine, or alimentary canal, is divided into two parts, the small and large intestines. The small intestine consists of:

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Original Meaning

pylorus (pulwro/j) gatekeeper duodeni twelve jejunum, jejuni empty; barren ileum, ilei flank

Current English Usage pylorus2 duodenum3 jejunum4 ileum

The large intestine consists of: Greek or Latin Word

Original Meaning

caecum, caeci blind; concealed colon (ko/lon) colon rectum, recti straight

Current English Usage cecum colon rectum

There are several other organs whose secretions aid in the digestion of food: Greek or Latin Word

Original Meaning

Current English Usage

cholae (xolai/) gall bladder gall bladder 5 pancreas (pa/gkreaj) sweetbread pancreas

Combining Form cholecystopancreato-

There are, of course, many words in Greek and Latin that have to do with eating, some of which have become part of modern medical terminology: Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

phagein (fa*gei=n) eat trophe (trofh/) nourishment nutrio-nutrire-nutritum nourish; support, take care of orexis (o)/recij) appetite geusis (geu=sij) taste (noun)

Combining Form -phage, phago-trophy nutri-orexia -geusia

2. The pylorus is the opening between the stomach and duodenum. 3. The duodenum gets its name from its size, about twelve (duodeni) finger-breadths in length. 4. The jejunum is the middle portion of the small intestine. Ancient medical theory stated that after death, it was empty. 5. Literally, “all-flesh.”

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T H E R E P RO D U C T I V E S Y S T E M

The human reproductive system consists of those organs and glands that are involved in the propagation of offspring. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

gone (gonh/) produce, offspring. What is the Latin cognate of this word? propago-propagare-propagatum extend; enlarge ovum, ovi egg sperma (spe/rma) seed hystera (u(ste/ra) uterus fetus, fetūs offspring embryon (e)/mbruon) young, fetus

It’s Not Funny . . . Some ancient Greek doctors believed that many mental disturbances in women were due to the dysfunction of the uterus. Although the word has lost its association with female behavior, hysteria is still used as a medical term to define a psychological condition that produces physical symptoms. It more commonly describes states of uncontrolled emotion of sadness, fear, or joy.

T H E E N D O C R I N E S YS T E M

The endocrine system consists of the ductless glands that produce hormones that are discharged into the blood or lymph and that then circulate throughout the body. They include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands; the insulinsecreting glands of the pancreas; and the gonads. These hormones control the body’s ability to metabolize a variety of substances and affect every facet of its functioning. Many of these glands take their names either from their shape or location, such as the adrenal glands, which are located adjacent to the kidneys, or the thyroid, whose shape resembles an ancient Greek oblong-shaped shield that covered the body from neck to ankles. Where are the parathyroid glands located?

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English Meaning

crino (kri/nw) separate; secrete endon (e)/ndon) within glans, glandis acorn hormao (o(rma/w) excite, stimulate pituita, pituitae phlegm thyreos (qureo/j) large shield insula, insulae island creas (kre/aj) flesh, meat metabole (metabolh/) change

Ahem . . . Ancient Greek physicians believed that the function of the pituitary gland was to produce phlegm, one of the four humors.

Etruscan gorgon (Villa Giulia, Rome)

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MORE USEFUL BEGINNINGS AND ENDINGS

The following Greek-based prefixes and suffixes are used in modern science and medicine to describe other systems, functions, and components of the body: Greek Word

Original Meaning Current English Usage

Combining Form

aden (a)dh/n) blastos (blasto/j) cytos (ku/toj) cystis (ku/stij) histos (i(sto/j) myelos (muelo/j) penia (peni/a) plasso (pla/ssw) thrix, trichos (qri/c)

gland sprout, seed hollow; vessel bladder web marrow poverty mold, shape hair

adenoblasto-, -blast cyto-, -cyte cysto-, -cyst histomyelo-

denoting a gland denoting a seed or embryo denoting a cell denoting a sac denoting tissue denoting bone marrow or spinal cord denoting deficiency denoting a formation denoting hair

-penia -plasia tricho-

The Long and the Short of It All of the following prefixes are derived, with no change in meaning, from Greek adjectives, and are used in biology and medicine to describe a variety of physical characteristics. Greek Adjective

Meaning

English Combining Form

brachy (braxu/) short brachybrady (bradu/) slow bradylepton (lepto/n) slender leptomalacon (malako/n) soft malacoopisthen (o)/pisqen) at the back opisthopachy (paxu/) thick pachyplaty (platu/) broad platyscleron (sklhro/n) hard sclerotachy (taxu/) fast tachyxeron (chro/n) dry xero-

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Use Your Head . . . The Latin word for hair is capillus, capilli. From what Latin noun is this word derived? Ring Around the Collar As you probably know from watching all those movies about Robin Hood, the Three Musketeers, and Queen Elizabeth, the traditional way of conferring knighthood is to tap the recipient on the shoulder with the flat side of a sword, in a gesture called accolade. Because knighthood was a reward for services performed, accolade now means any award or public praise. collum, colli = neck

Scribble, Scribble! By the way, those illegible letters that doctors so often scrawl on prescription forms are abbreviations of Latin phrases: Abbreviation

Latin Phrase

ad lib. ad libitum b.i.d. bis in diē b.i.d. bis in nocte h.s. hora somni p.o. per os q.i.d. quater in diē q.v. quantum vis s.o.s. si opus est stat. statim

English Meaning as desired twice a day twice a night at bedtime by mouth four times a day as much as you wish if necessary immediately

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. What are the following diseases, medical procedures, or biological processes? 1. venotomy

____________________

11. anorexia

____________________

2. arteriogram ____________________

12. trichotillomania ____________________

3. vasculitis

13. osteomalacia

____________________

4. phlebectomy ____________________

14. adenoma

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5. tracheostomy ____________________

15. myelopathy

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6. pleurodynia

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16. histogenesis

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7. dysgeusia

____________________

17. colonoscopy

____________________

8. tachycardia

____________________

18. pharyngoplegia ____________________

____________________

9. cholocystitis ____________________

19. pancreatalgia

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10. brachypnea

20. pneumonia

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B. Fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the underlined word or part of word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 21. He was so aggressive that when he “went for the jugular,” everyone around covered their __________. 22. A platypus is a mammal distinguished by its __________ __________. 23. A pachyderm is a mammal distinguished by its __________ __________. 24. A dyspeptic individual is grouchy, perhaps because he has __________ __________. 25. A sclerotic individual is one whose ideas have become __________.

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26. The queen received a __________ at her coronation. 27. His inspiring speech allowed me to __________ __________ his knowledge and wisdom. 28. What is the meaning of atrophy in medical terminology? __________ 29. What is its meaning in the following sentence? “Her desire for fame and fortune atrophied as her acting career blossomed.” __________ 30. A pneometer is ____________________ __________. 31. Histology is the __________ __________. 32. I was insulted when my friend said I had cerebromalacia. Why? ____________________ 33. A phagocyte is a __________that has the ability to __________ various substances. 34. A leptorrhine individual has a __________ __________. 35. A brachycephalic individual has a __________ __________. 36. The trademark Xerox was given to a process of __________copying. 37. An omophagous animal__________ raw food. 38. The pylorus acts as a __________between the stomach and duodenum. 39. The lymphatic system is composed mainly of __________. 40. Myeloma is a __________that originates in the __________. 41. Peptic enzymes aid in the __________ of food. 42. I went to a trichologist when I wanted to change the color of my __________. 43. What is the etymological connection between the jejunum and jejune behavior? __________ __________________________________________________ 44. Nutrients provide __________ for the body. 45. A nocturnal creature is active during the __________. 46. If the doctor in the emergency room yells “stat!” she needs help __________. 47. Someone suffering from leukopenia has a__________ white blood cells.

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48. His bald ovate-shaped head reminded me of an __________. 49. When we describe an idea as embryonic, what do we mean? ____________________ 50. When we describe someone’s attitude as insular, what do we mean? ____________________ C. The Latin verb digero is a compound of dis- (apart) + gero-gerere-gestum (carry, bear). What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words?

Literal Meaning

Current Usage

51. egest

____________________

52. congestion

____________________

53. gestation

____________________

54. gesture

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55. suggestive

____________________

56. gesticulate

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57. digest (noun)

____________________

58. ingest

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D. Take a deep breath . . . What are the literal meanings and current usages of the following words?

Literal Meaning

Current Usage

59. respiration

____________________

60. expire

____________________

61. conspiracy

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62. transpire

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63. inspiration

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64. aspiration

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14 S c i e n c e and M at h e m at i c s

The Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 BCE)

Man is not taught by the gods to know things whole from the outset; little by little advances are made with time and with trouble. XENOPHANES (sixth-century BCE philosopher)

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ANCIENT AND MODERN SCIENCE All mankind have an instinctive desire for knowledge. ARISTOTLE, Metaphysics

Most of the vocabulary of modern science and technology is derived from Greek and Latin roots. Many of these terms are, of course, learned borrowings, since the ancient world’s concepts of, and postulates about, physical reality were really quite different from those of modern science. Nevertheless, the questions that the ancient Greeks and Romans asked about the nature of the world—how it worked and of what sort of material it was made of—determined the course of European scientific inquiry to the modern period. And the recognition that the Greeks and Romans were the primary source of the European intellectual tradition led the modern physical sciences to reach back to their classical roots in order to construct their specialized vocabularies. In addition, the use of Greek and Latin roots has allowed for the creation of a common scientific language that transcends linguistic barriers. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

ars, artis skill, art episteme (e)pisth/mh) knowledge experior-experiri-expertum try, test materia, materiae matter; material natura, naturae nature cf. nascor-nasci-natum be born physis (fu/sij) nature postulo-postulare-postulatum demand, require; claim qualis, qualis of what kind? quantum, quanti how much? quot (indeclinable) how many? scio-scire-scitum know techne (te/xnh) skill, art THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Nature does not go by any hard or fast law. THEOPHRASTUS (fourth-century BCE philosopher and scholar)

Biology is the study of life or living matter in all its forms. The system of classification of plants and animals that modern biology uses was devised by Carl van Linne

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(Linnaeus), an eighteenth-century Swedish scientist who organized the varieties of plants and animals by giving each a double Latin name, the first word denoting the genus, the second, the species. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

bios (bi/oj) life genus, generis birth, origin; offspring; type, kind cf. genos (ge/noj) family, race; class, kind species, speciei form, shape, appearance cf. specio-specere look at phylon (fu=lon) race, tribe, class

Zoology The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing. ARCHILOCHUS (seventh-century BCE Greek poet)

Zoology is that branch of biology that studies the behavior, physiology, and classification of animals. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

zoon (zw=on) cf. -zoon (singular) and -zoa (plural) animal, animalis (cf. anima)

living thing in combining form, used as suffix in the formation of names of zoological groups living being

Animal

Latin Word

Greek Word

bear cat cow dog horse monkey

ursus, ursi felis, felis vacca, vaccae canis, canis equus simia, simiae

arctos (a)/rktoj) ailuros (ai)/louroj) bous (bou=j ) or tauros (tau=roj) cyon, cynos (ku/wn) hippos (i(/ppoj) pithecos (pi/qhkoj)

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Ornithology There is nothing better or more pleasant than to sprout wings. ARISTOPHANES (fifth-century BCE comic playwright), The Birds

Ornithology is that branch of zoology that deals with the scientific study of birds. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

ornis, ornithos (o)/rnij) bird avis, avis bird pteron (ptero/n) wing in combining form, ptero- winged

Entomology Some have said that bees partake of the divine mind and heavenly breath. VERGIL (first-century BCE Roman poet), Georgics

Entomology is that branch of zoology that deals with the scientific study of insects. Entomologists estimate that there are at least 1 million species of insects. Although the classifications of insects have Latin- and Greek-based names, their common names are very often locally given. Lepidoptera is an order of insects, but one of the insects that belongs in this order is called butterfly in English, papillon in French, and la mariposa in Spanish. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

entomon (e)/ntomon) notched; cut into pieces cf. tomos (tomo/j) cutting formica, formicae ant insectum, insecti notched; cut into pieces cf. seco-secare-sectum cut Lepidoptera that order of insects that have “scaled wings”

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(www.cartoonstock.com)

Ichthyology I shall be more silent than the fish. LUCIAN (second-century CE Greek essayist)

Ichthyology is that branch of zoology that deals with the study of fish. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

ichthys (i)xqu/j) fish piscis, piscis fish mare, maris sea Oceanos ( Wkeano/j) Greek god who ruled the waters that flowed around the earth

Metaphors The symbol of early Christianity was a fish. This sign was chosen because the Greek word ichthys was interpreted as an acronym for the following words: I)hsou=j Xristo/j Qeou\ Ui(o\j Swth/r (Iesūs Christos Theou Uios Soter = Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Savior).

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Herpetology Nearby are their three winged sisters, the snake-haired Gorgons, hateful to men. No mortal having seen them will still live. AESCHYLUS (fifth-century BCE playwright), Prometheus Bound

Herpetology is that branch of biology that deals with the study of reptiles and amphibians. Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

herpo (e(/rpw) serpo-serpere-serptum reptilis, reptilis dracon (dra/kwn)

creep, crawl creep, crawl creeping, crawling; snake snake, serpent; dragon

Botany In turn the lord who strikes from afar, Apollo, answered him: Shaker of the earth, you would have me be as one without prudence if I am to fight even you for the sake of insignificant mortals, who are as leaves, and now flourish and grow warm with life, and feed on what the ground gives, but then fade away and are dead. HOMER, Iliad

Botany is that branch of biology that deals with the scientific study of plants. Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

anthos (a)/nqoj) flower, blossom arbor, arboris tree botane (bota/nh) grass, herb dendron (de/ndron) tree drys, dryos (dru=j) tree flos, floris flower cf. floreo-florēre flourish folium, folii leaf phyllon (fu/llon) leaf radix, radicis root

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Resting on Her Laurels The Greeks believed that certain places were inhabited by female spirits of nature called nymphs.Those who lived within trees were called dryads.There are many myths about nymphs, but perhaps the most famous is that of Daphne, who was turned into a laurel tree in order to prevent her capture by the god Apollo, who was pursuing her. The laurel was forever after sacred to Apollo. daphne (da/fnh) = laurel tree

Genetics But she bore Chimaera, who breathed invincible fire, a terrible great creature, swift-footed and strong. She had three heads: one of a fierce lion, one of a she-goat, and one of a powerful serpent. HESIOD (seventh-century BCE poet), Theogony

Genetics is that branch of biology that deals with heredity: the transmission of characteristics encoded in the chromosomes of cells from parent to offspring. Classical mythology records many examples of strange genetic hybrids and mutations. The Cretan queen Pasiphae gave birth to the Minotaur, a creature with the head of a bull and the body of a man; the Centaurs, who were half horse and half human, were the descendents of a coupling of the mortal Ixion and a cloud; Zeus changed himself and the mortal Leda into swans so they might escape the jealous eye of Hera, his wife. (Leda subsequently laid an egg, out of which hatched four mortal children.) Modern genetics began much more modestly with the work of Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), an Austrian monk whose plant-breeding experiments led him to formulate the first principles of heredity. Although his laws have been demonstrated to be not universally true, Mendel’s theories on dominant and recessive traits are the basis for some of today’s high-tech genetic engineering.The discovery of the existence of DNA and the development of the techniques of gene manipulation have opened up many possibilities, some perhaps as strange as those described in ancient myth. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

dominor-dominari-dominatum rule cf. dominus, domini master genea (gene/a) family, race heres, heredis heir hybrida, hybridae mixed breed muto-mutare-mutatum change typos (tu/poj) mark, image; model, outline

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He Looks Just Like You . . . Although the Greeks envisioned hybrid creatures that combined the characteristics of humans and other animals, modern biology has explored the possibility of creating exact genetic replicas through the process of cloning. clon (klw/n) = offshoot, twig What Are You Made Of? The molecular form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), present in chromosomes and the carrier of genetic information, has been described as looking like two spirals wound around each other. Check your English dictionary to see how chromosome got its name. Can you see which Greek words are its roots? Greek Word

English Meaning

helix (h(/lic) oxy (o)cu/)

spiral sharp; clever

A S T RO N O M Y A clever and attractive Thracian servant-girl is said to have mocked Thales (a sixth century BCE Greek philosopher) for falling into a well while he was observing the stars and looking upward. PLATO, Theatetus (174A)

One branch of science, astronomy, does have its foundation in antiquity, since the heavenly bodies were studied with great interest by all the cultures of the ancient world. Many of the terms used by modern astronomers were employed first by the Greeks and Romans, although often within a different context. For example, when the modern astronomer uses the word planet, she means any heavenly body that shines by reflected light and revolves around a sun; but the ancient Greek definition of a planet was any one of the heavenly spheres that had apparent motion. These, then, included the sun and the moon, as well as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—but not Earth. Some of the terminology of astronomy has its origins in Greek mythology. We call the system of stars to which our sun belongs the Milky Way because, traditionally, the Greeks told the story that it had been formed from drops of milk spilled from the breast of the goddess Hera as she nursed the infant hero Hercules. Hence, too, the word galaxy. In addition, many of the constellations are named for figures that appear in Greek and Roman myth.

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In the ancient world, scientific astronomy and astrology coexisted quite happily. As we have already seen, many believed (then as now) in astrology, which maintained that the present and future could be revealed through the study of the activity of the planets and the constellations. According to traditional astrological theory, the interrelationship among the planets and the constellations, or the signs of the Zodiac, exerts a special influence over human affairs. And even if we do not believe in the validity of astrology, it has given us words that we normally do not associate with the stars: disaster, dismal, and influenza. Although many ancient Greek philosophers and scientists rejected the premises of astrology, they did believe that the universe was perfect and unchanging, the visible symbol of a divine order; hence, they called it the cosmos. More popularly, the Greeks believed that the earth arose out of a great void, or emptiness, which they called Chaos. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

aster (a)sth/r) or astron (a)/stron ) star cf. Latin astrum, astri star stella, stellae star planao (plana/w) wander > planetes (planh/thj) wandering, planet helios (h(/lioj) sun sol, solis sun gala, galactos (ga/la) milk cf. Latin lac, lactis milk volvo-volvere-volutum turn cosmos (ko/smoj) order; decoration; universe mundus, mundi decoration; world, universe chaos (xa/oj) chaos; infinite space

Most ancient astronomers held to the view that all the planets revolved around the earth and that there was a band in the heavens that encompassed the apparent paths of the planets. This band was divided into twelve parts, each having the name of a constellation. Signs of the Zodiac (Latin names) Aries = Ram Taurus = Bull Gemini = Twins Cancer = Crab Leo = Lion Virgo = Maiden

Libra = Balance Scales Scorpio = Scorpion Sagittarius = Archer Capricorn = Goat-Horned Aquarius = Water Carrier Pisces = Fish

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Cosmic Glue Ancient philosophers believed that the heavenly bodies were composed of a fifth element and that this substance, which Aristotle called ether, was hidden in all matter. In medieval philosophical treatises this fifth element was called the quinta essentia. What is the current meaning of the word quintessence? ether (ai)qh/r) = heaven, sky (sum)-esse-futurum = be, exist You’d Better Stay Home The words disaster, dismal, and influenza all have their roots in the belief that the heavenly bodies have the power to affect our lives. Disaster = dis- (apart, away from ) + astrum (star) Dismal. The Romans believed that certain days (dies) were unlucky (mali) because of the influence of the stars. Influenza. Based on the belief that the disease was caused by the effect of the heavenly bodies on human beings. (The Italian influenza is derived from influo-influere = flow into.) Look, Up in the Sky. It’s a Bird . . . The names of most of the planets in our solar system bear the names of the divinities whom the ancient Romans believed ruled over them. Mercury,Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn had been observed by ancient astronomers, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that another celestial body, previously thought to be a comet, was recognized as a planet. After much argument, it was named Uranus, after the Greek god of the sky.

C H E M I S T RY Nature delights in nature, and nature conquers nature, and nature masters nature. BOLOS (second-century BCE scientist), Physica

Modern chemistry and medieval alchemy have the same etymological root, but their aims are very different. The alchemist sought to transform “base” metals into gold, thereby transforming himself from a base being into one who was spiritually purified. The goal of at least some alchemical practitioners was to discover the philosopher’s stone, or the elixir vitae, the substance that was capable of effecting this transformation. Although many chemical compounds were discovered and many laboratory instruments that are still used were invented in this search, the modern science of chemistry asserts that it is much more modest in its goals: it is the study of the compositions and properties of substances and the reactions by which they are produced and changed.

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Sarcophagus of a child (Kayseri Museum, Turkey)

The Elements Although modern chemistry defines the term element to mean the basic substances that cannot be broken down into simpler ones by chemical means, the more common ancient view was that there were four elements that comprised the cosmos: earth, air, fire, and water. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

Greek Combining Form

elementum, elementi element, first principle chemia (xhmei/a) alloying of metals chemoge (gh=) earth geoterra, terrae earth aer (a)h/r) air aeroaer, aeris air aqua, aquae water hydor, hydatos (u(/dwr) water hydro in Greek compounds, u(drignis, ignis fire pyr, pyros (pu=r) fire pyro-

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Modern chemistry recognizes over 100 elements; they exist in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. In the periodic table, many elements are represented by abbreviations of their Latin names. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

hygron (u(gro/n) liquid in combining form, hygro- moisture liquidus, liquidi liquid cf. liquor, liqui flow, melt solidum, solidi firm; whole, complete stereon (stereo/n) solid, firm vapor, vaporis gas, vapor Element

Latin Name

Greek Equivalent

copper gold iron lead mercury silver

cuprum, cupri (Cu) aurum, auri (Au) ferrum (Fe) plumbum (Pb) argentum vivum (Hg) argentum, argenti (Ag)

chalcos (xalko/j) chrysos (xruso/j) sideros (si/dhroj) molybdos (mo/lubdoj) hydrargyros (u(dra/rguroj) argyros (a)/rguroj)

Other elements have names that are drawn from Greek and Roman mythology: Element Character Helium Neptunium Niobium Plutonium Promethium Selenium Tantalum Titanium

named for Helios, the Greek god of the sun named for Neptune, the Roman god of the sea named for Niobe, whose many children were killed by Apollo, after she had boasted of having more children than Leto, the mother of the god. Overwhelmed by grief, she wept unceasingly, and turned to stone. But still she wept. named for Pluto, Greek god of the underworld named for Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to humans named for Selene, Greek goddess of the moon named for Tantalus, who, thinking he could fool the gods, served them his son, Pelops, in a stew. The divinities were not fooled, or amused, and put him back together again. Tantalus was condemned to be eternally punished in the underworld. named for the Titans, the second generation of gods, who were overthrown by the Olympians, led by Zeus

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Eponyms Although many elements take their names from Greek and Latin roots, some are eponymous, e.g., fermium, einsteinium, curium, and mendelevium. From what Greek word is eponymous derived, and what does it mean?

Biochemistry Sugar is sweet, and so are you . . .

Biochemistry is that branch of chemistry that deals with living matter. The human body has proved to be a highly sophisticated chemistry lab that is constantly breaking down organic compounds (nutrients) so they may be used by the body, which produces various enzymes that act as catalysts in this process. During digestion, for example, carbohydrates are converted into glucose, a sugar. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

lysis (lu/sij) untying; loosening as learned borrowing, -lysis breaking down, decomposition zyme (zu/mh) leaven; yeast as learned borrowing, zymo- leaven fermentum, fermenti leaven, yeast cf. ferveo-fervēre boil, rage sacchar (sa/kxar) sugar glycy (gluku/) sweet as learned borrowing, glyco- or gluco- sugar

Mistaken Identity Antoine Lavoisier, the French chemist who in 1775 identified the element necessary for combustion, mistakenly thought that it was present in all acids.Therefore, he named it oxygen (causing sharpness). Please Don’t Drink the Water In modern chemistry, the term aqua means not only water, but liquid. Before you fill your glass, you should know the following deadly drinks: aqua fortis (strong water) = nitric acid aqua regia (royal water) = a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids that possesses the ability to dissolve gold

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P H YS I C S Panta Rhei (“all things flow”) HERAcl*tUS (sixth-century BCE Greek philosopher)

The modern science of physics deals with the properties, changes, and interactions of matter and energy; but to the ancient Greeks, physics was the inclusive study of natural science or natural philosophy. Modern physics includes the fields of mechanics, optics, and thermodynamics. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

physis (fu/sij) nature ergon (e)/rgon) work opus, operis work labor-laborari-laboratum work (verb) atomon (a)/tomon) uncut cf. –tomy, -ectomy nucleus, nuclei kernel electron (h)/lektron) amber as learned borrowing, electro- electric neuter, neutri neither proton (prw=ton) first moles, molis mass ion (i)o/n) going (because ions move toward the electrode of the opposite charge) pars, partis part. What are the diminutive forms of moles and pars?

Mechanics The path up and path down are one and the same. HERAcl*tUS (sixth-century BCE Greek philosopher)

Mechanics is that branch of physics that deals with motion and the action of force on bodies.The history of mechanics proves that not all science takes place in the laboratory. According to popular tradition, Galileo investigated the relative speed of falling bodies by dropping differing weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa; Isaac Newton is said to have been inspired to formulate his theories about the laws of gravity and motion after watching an apple fall from a tree. And then, of course, there was the third-century BCE Greek scientist Archimedes, who formulated the principle that a body immersed in fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight

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of the fluid displaced. He is said to have been lying in his bath when he made the discovery, and to have jumped up, naked, and run into the street, shouting “Eureka!” (eu(/rhka = I have found [it]!). Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

moveo-movēre-motum move mechane (mhxanh/) machine; contrivance kinesis (ki/nhsij) movement gravis, gravis heavy velox, velocis swift, rapid inertia, inertiae lack of skill; laziness cf. ars, artis skill

Optics I seem to see two suns blazing in the heavens. EURIPIDES (fifth-century BCE Athenian playwright), The Bacchae

Optics is that branch of physics that deals with the nature and properties of light and vision. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

opteuo (o)pteu/w) see video-vidēre-visum see phos, photos (fw=j) light in combining form, photo- light lux, lucis light lumen, luminis light, source of light chroma, chromatos (xrw=ma) color in combining form, chromato- color pigmentum, pigmenti color Color

Latin Word

Greek Word

Greek Combining Form

white black red blue green

album, albi nigrum, nigri rubrum, rubri caeruleum, caerulei viridis, viridis

leucos (leuko/j) leucomelas, melanos (me/laj) melanoerythros (e)ruqro/j) erythrocyanos (ku/anoj) cyanochloros (xlwro/j) chloro-

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Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is that branch of physics that deals with the relationship between heat and energy. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

thermon (qermo/n) hot, warm calor, caloris warmth, heat dynamis (du/namij) power, force potentia, potentiae power, force chronos (xro/noj) time tempus, temporis time

GEOLOGY Earth first produced starry Sky, equal in size to herself, to cover her on all sides. HESIOD, Theogony 126

Geology is the study of the structure of the earth’s crust and the formation of its various layers, including rock types and fossils. In ancient Greece, the earth was considered to be the oldest of all the deities; her name was Gaia, and she had given birth to the first generation of gods and to all good things in nature. We still call our planet Mother Earth. Latin or Greek word

English meaning

Ge (Gh=) or Gaia (Gai=a) Earth in combining form, geoterra, terrae earth lapis, lapidis stone lithos (li/qoj) stone petros (pe/troj) stone, rock Vulcanus,Vulcani The Roman blacksmith god who had his forge on Mt. Etna. There he made weapons for the gods and the heroes. Volcanology is the scientific study of volcanoes.

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I’ll Drink to That . . . Like today, many stones were regarded as precious by the ancient Greeks, but some were thought to have special properties. The amethyst, for example, was believed to prevent intoxication. methu (me/qu) = wine

Paleontology Paleontology is that branch of geology that deals with prehistoric life through the study of plant and animal fossils (the remains or traces of animal or plant life of earlier geological ages). For the nonspecialist, perhaps the most exciting fossils are those of the dinosaurs, the reptiles that lived during the Mesozoic period (220–265 million years ago). They, too, have a classical name. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

paleon (palaio/n) old in combining form, paleo- old on, ontos (w)/n) being in combining form, onto- being fodio-fodere-fossum dig up dinon (deino/n) terrible, fearful sauros (sau=roj) lizard

Jurassic Park, Revisited . . . Perhaps the most frightening of the dinosaurs was the forty-five-foot-long Tyrannosaurus rex, a carnivore that had teeth that were a foot in length. What are the Greek and Latin roots of his name? His playmates included the brontosaurus and the pterodactyl. What were their special characteristics? Jurassic, by the way, is just a synonym for Mesozoic, an age in the earth’s history that occurred between 70 and 220 million years ago. deino/j = terrible, dread bronth/ = thunder

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GEOGRAPHY But as to the fable that there are Antipodes, that is to say, men on the opposite side of the earth, where the sun rises when it sets to us, men who walk with their feet opposite ours, that is in no way credible. ST. AUGUSTINE, City of God

Geography is the study of the physical and human landscapes on the surface of the earth, the location and distribution of its natural and cultural features, the processes that affect them over time and space, and the relationship and interaction between humans and their environment. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

mappa, mappae napkin, cloth; map charta, chartae papyrus; paper mons, montis mountain oros, oreos (o)/roj, o)/reoj) mountain lacus, lacūs lake limne (li/mnh) lake flumen, fluminis river cf. fluo-fluere = flow potamos (potamo/j) river insula, insulae island silva, silvae forest

Gerhard Mercator, sixteenth century Flemish cartographer, who created a world map and is said to have coined the word ”atlas” to describe a collection of maps

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M E T E O RO L O G Y Let the forked curl of fire be hurled against me, let the air be stirred by thunder and the convulsive blast of the savage winds. AESCHYLUS (fifth-century BCE Athenian playwright), Prometheus Bound (1043–1045)

Meteorology is the science that deals with the study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena, including weather and climate. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

meteoron (mete/wron) raised from the ground; high in the air clima, climatos (kli/ma) region, zone atmos (a)tmo/j) vapor as learned borrowing, atmo- air sphera (sfai=ra) ball nebula, nebulae mist, vapor, fog tempestas, tempestatis season of the year; weather; storm pluvia, pluviae rain glacies, glaciei ice baros (ba/roj) weight as learned borrowing, baro- pressure

It Was a Dark and Stormy Night . . . Zeus, of course, was the god who sent thunder and lightning bolts. They were the weapons he used to show his displeasure and to punish those who had angered him. The Greeks believed that the winds were the children of Eos (Dawn) and Astraeus (“the Starry One”), a Titan. “Astraeus and Dawn—god and goddess—lay together in love and Dawn gave birth to the violent winds; Zephyr, who brings fair weather; Boreas, who opens a path for the storm; and Notus. After the winds, Dawn gave birth to the stars—the morning star and the shining constellations.” Hesiod, Theogony 375–383 Greek or Latin Word English Meaning anemos (a)/nemoj) wind in combining form, anemo- wind ventus, venti wind Aurora, Aurorae goddess of the dawn

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English Meaning

Boreas (Bore/aj) North Wind Zephyros (Ze/furoj) West Wind Notos (No/toj) or Auster, Austri South Wind Euros (Eu)=roj) East Wind Typhon (Tufw=n) a mythological giant. His body, after he was killed by Zeus, became the source of all harmful winds. A dreadful creature, he had 100 fiery serpent heads cyclos (ku/kloj) circle as learned borrowing, cyclo- cycle The Seasons In Greek mythology, the Seasons, or Horae, were thought to be the daughters of Zeus and the goddess Themis. It is their Roman names, however, that give us our English derivatives. Latin Word

English Meaning

aestas, aestatis autumnus, autumni tempus hibernum ver, veris, or tempus vernum

summer fall winter spring

M AT H E M AT I C S

To ancient Greek scientists, mathematics was considered to be a branch of philosophy because they believed that through mathematics one could come to understand all the physical and spiritual relationships among the constituent parts of the cosmos. Modern mathematics has a perhaps more limited goal: it is that branch of knowledge that deals with quantities, magnitudes, and forms; their measurements; and their interrelationships.

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Greek or Latin Word

197

English Meaning

manthano (manqa/nw) learn perfect stem = mathmathematica (maqhmatika/) the things to be learned; mathematics arithmos (a)riqmo/j) number numerus, numeri number calculus, calculi pebble; small stone gonia (gwni/a) angle cf. Latin genu, genūs knee axioma (a)ci/wma) honor; decision; self-evident theorem q.e.d. (quod erat demonstrandum) that which was to be proved

Circular Reasoning The mathematical term pi, which represents the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, was a symbol used by Greek mathematicians to represent the word perife/reia, or circumference. Can you figure out the literal meaning of this Greek word?

Cybernetics In 1948, the noted mathematician Norbert Wiener coined the term cybernetics to describe the study of systems of control and communication within and between humans, machines, organizations, and society. Although cybernetics encompasses fields of research as diverse as the study of neural networks and chaos theory, it is most popularly associated with the development of computer technology and artificial intelligence. The use of digital computers has introduced a host of new words to the English language, such as megabyte and gigabyte, as well as acronyms such as RAM, and has given new meanings to old words, such as memory, virtual reality, digital, and flexibility, that are formed from Greek and Latin roots. Computers may have affected every aspect of modern existence, but like all machines, they have their limitations. Wouldn’t it be nice if whenever we made an error in our lives all we had to do was hit the delete or backspace key and erase our mistake?

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English Meaning

cybernetes (kubernh/thj) pilot, governor puto-putare-putatum consider, think > computo-computare-computatum sum up, calculate gigas, gigantos (gi/gaj) mighty, as learned borrowing, giga- = billion megas (mega/j) very large, as learned borrowing, mega- = million deleo-delēre-deletum destroy erro-errare-erratum wander, make a mistake virtus, virtutis excellence; worth. What is the root of this word?

ISLAMIC SCIENCE

The spread of Islam through North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia brought the medieval Muslim world in contact with the intellectual traditions of not only Greece and Rome but of ancient Mesopotamia, Persia, and India as well. Muslim scholars were very much interested in ancient Greek science and played a decisive role in preserving much of that knowledge, which otherwise would have been lost, through the translation of Greek scientific texts into Arabic. When they found a word that had no Arabic equivalent, they transliterated it and placed the Arabic definite article, al- in front. Hence, alchemy is a hybrid word; the article is Arabic, but the base of the word is Greek. These scholars also did much original research, especially in the fields of astronomy and mathematics. Perhaps the greatest mathematician of the medieval period was the ninth-century Persian al-Khwarazmi, whose treatise on linear and quadratic equations, The Compendium on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, laid the cornerstone of that branch of mathematics called algebra (al-jabr = completion). In this work, al-Khwarazmi employed a Hindu system of number notation that we now call Arabic numerals. Translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the Compendium introduced into Europe the notational system that is universally used. Al-Khwarazmi inadvertently gave his name to another mathematical term: algorithm, a set of ordered steps for solving a problem, is a corrupted form of al-Khwarazmi.

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ Answer the question, or fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the underlined word or part of the word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. Introduction 1. A microbe is a __________ form of __________. 2. I want to study epistemology because then I will know how I __________anything. 3. What is the literal meaning of technocracy? __________ __________ What is its current usage? __________ 4. What is the literal meaning of artifice? __________What is its current usage? __________ 5. A qualifying exam determines __________ knowledge you possess. 6. An omniscient being __________ __________. 7. What is the literal meaning of expostulate? __________ __________. What is its current usage? ____________________ 8. Innate characteristics are those that are __________ __________ an individual. 9. In arithmetic, the quotient represents __________ times one quantity can be divided by another. 10. What is the literal meaning of specious? __________ __________ What is a specious argument? ____________________ Biological Sciences A. Botany

11. An arboretum is a place where __________are cultivated. 12. A portfolio contains __________ that can be __________.

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13. Dendrochronology is the __________ the rings of __________ to determine the __________ of past events. 14. The philodendron plant is so named because it __________to wrap itself around__________. 15. If I describe his complexion as florid, what do I mean? __________ If I describe her prose as florid, what do I mean? __________ 16. When a disease has been eradicated, it has been taken __________by the __________. 17. He wanted to admire the stillness of the sylvan setting, but he was afraid to go into the __________. B. Zoology

18. A person with a bovine appearance resembles a __________. 19. What animal races in a hippodrome? __________ 20. The pithecanthropus displayed characteristics of both __________ and __________. 21. The chief characteristic of reptiles is that they __________. 22. Formicide is a substance that is used to __________ __________. 23. A person who engages in the piscatorial art enjoys __________ 24. Protozoa are considered the __________ forms of __________. 25. What does it mean when we call someone a rara avis? ____________________ 26. The hippopotamus got his name because it resembled a__________ who lives in a __________. 27. What is the literal meaning of pterodactyl? __________ __________ How did it get its name? ___________________ 28. His feline grace as he danced made him resemble a __________. 29. Marine biology is __________ __________that exists in the __________. 30. What is the difference between etymology and entomology? ____________________________ __________________________________________ 31. What is a toreador? __________ What is the Latin root of this word? __________ 32. If I say that the situation is mutable, I mean that it is subject to __________.

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33. How did the word genial come to mean cheerful and pleasant? ____________________ 34. When we call someone a genius, we mean he is very smart. How did the word come to have this present meaning? _________________________________________________________ 35. To dissect a problem is to __________ it __________. Astronomy 36. An event of cosmic significance affects the __________. 37. Heliotropic plants turn toward the __________. 38. During a lunar eclipse, the light of the __________ is obscured. 39. What is the difference between cosmology and cosmetology? ___________________________________________________ 40. What is the literal meaning of cosmopolitan? __________ __________ What is its current usage? __________ 41. A solarium is a __________we can enjoy the__________. 42. His stellar performance made him shine like a__________. 43. The planets seem to __________ through the heavens. 44. An asteroid is a heavenly body that __________ __________. 45. Lactose is a __________ found in __________. 46. She told me, “I get up in the morning, I make my bed, I get on the subway and go to work. I hate my mundane existence.” What was she complaining about? _____________________________ Chemistry 47. The chief component of ferric oxide is __________. 48. What is the literal meaning of stereotype? __________ __________What is its current usage? ____________________ 49. Saccharine is an artificial __________. If an individual is described as having a saccharine personality, what is she like? ____________________ 50. An aquifer is a geologic formation that __________ __________.

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51. As I got off the airplane, I said, “Am I glad to be on terra firma!” Where was I? __________ __________ 52. Ian Fleming, the author of the James Bond novel Goldfinger, must have studied Latin as a boy since he gave this archvillain the first name Auric. What was the joke? ____________________ 53. If you are suffering from hyperglycemia, you have __________ amount of __________ in your __________. 54. A pyrogenic substance is one that __________ __________. 55. What is the meaning of the verb tantalize? __________ Why is the word based on the myth of Tantalus? If you do not know why, check a reference work on classical mythology. ______________________________________________________________________ Physics 56. When she said that the synergy of apple pie and ice cream was extraordinary, what did she mean? ________________________________________. 57. Thermal underwear helps you to keep __________. 58. The French word for money is argent. What should it be made of? __________ 59. Chlorophyll makes the __________of a plant __________. 60. To what other Latin word is the Latin word materia related? __________ How might the two words be connected? ____________________ 61. The earliest Greek philosophers were called the physicists because they explored questions about __________. 62. A hydraulic pump is operated by __________. 63. A dyne is a measurement of __________. 64. A calorie is a measurement of __________. 65. His hyperkinetic activity made me crazy; he was constantly __________ __________. 66. What is a leukocyte? __________ __________What is an erythrocyte? __________ __________ 67. Be careful that your car’s ignition does not cause a __________.

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68. According to its root, fervor should mean __________ __________What is its current usage? ____________________ 69. Albumen is the __________of an egg. 70. What color should a rubric be? __________What was the original meaning of the word? __________ What is its current usage? ____________________ 71. A monochromatic picture is done in a __________ __________. 72. If the doctor says you are cyanotic, you have turned __________. 73. An object that is translucent allows __________to pass __________ it. 74. He was neutral in their argument, because he supported __________ point of view. 75. A luminary is a leading __________in his profession. 76. Construct two sentences, each of which illustrates the possible different usages of the word gravity. Make sure that the sentences are grammatically correct. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 77. I had hoped my novel would be my magnum opus, but all the reviewers said it was not a __________ __________. 78. What is the literal meaning of extempore? __________ __________What is its current usage? __________ 79. What are two different usages of nucleus?

a. ______________________________

b. ______________________________

80. Velocity is the measure of the __________ of an object.

Geology and Geography 81. The geocentric theory posited that the __________ was at the center of the cosmos. 82. I am a limnologist, and so I am always jumping into __________.

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83. If the doctor tells you that you are suffering from renal calculi, what do you have? __________ __________ 84. When the student called her teacher a fossil, what did she mean? ____________________ 85. Medieval cartographers often attempted to construct a mappa mundi. What was their profession __________, and what were they trying to create? ____________________ 86. What is the literal meaning of monolith? What are two different current usages of this word? ____________________ ____________________ 87. If you are petrified, you feel as if you have been __________ into __________. What are two different current usages of this word? ____________________ ____________________ 88. The Paleolithic period is more commonly known as the __________ __________ Age. 89. What is the literal meaning of megalith? __________ __________ What is its current usage? ____________________ 90. What is the literal meaning of lapidary? __________ __________ What do we mean if we say that someone writes in a lapidary style? ____________________ Meteorology 91. If I said it was a pluvious day, what would the weather be? __________ 92. What is a more common name for the Aurora Borealis? __________ __________ What is the literal meaning of its name? __________ __________ 93. His behavior might be described as tempestuous, because he was always __________. 94. The more common name for an anemone is a __________flower. 95. Some animals hibernate in the __________. 96. When he asked me where we would estivate, I told him our __________plans. 97. What continent was named the “southern unknown land” by nineteenth-century explorers? __________

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98. An object that is spherical is shaped like a __________. 99. An idea that is nebulous is so vague that it resembles a __________. 100. If your teacher gives you a glacial look, he is acting in an __________ manner. Mathematics 101. At the end of his logical argument, he stated confidently, “q.e.d.” What did he mean? _______ _______________________________________________________________ 102. A megaton bomb carries an explosive force equal to __________ tons of TNT. 103. It is axiomatic that night follows day, i.e., it is a __________. 104. Your reputation reveals what others __________about you. 105. What is the literal meaning of virtual? _____________ What is its current usage? ___________________ 106. The deleterious effects of drugs can __________ you. 107. In editing a text, what is the meaning of dele? _______________ 108. His erratic behavior caused everyone to fear that his mind was _______________.

15 It’s an Academic Question

Sappho, Greek poet. Sixth century BCE (Naples Museum, Italy)

Demetrius summoned Stilpo, the philosopher, and asked him whether anyone had robbed him of anything. “No one,” said Stilpo, “for I saw no one carrying away knowledge.” PLUTARCH (first-century CE essayist), The Life of Demetrius, ch. 59

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G R E E K A N D RO M A N E D U C AT I O N

Although students may think that attending school is an occupation as difficult and demanding as any job, and what is more, an absolute necessity for future success, most ancient Greeks and Romans viewed education and learning beyond the basic skills as a luxury available only to those who had money, and therefore the leisure, to devote themselves to study and the pursuit of knowledge. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

educo-educare-educatum cf. duco-ducere pedia (paidei/a) encyclios pedia (e)gku/klioj) pedagogos (paidagwgo/j)

train, rear; educate

education; culture “encircling” education; general knowledge The slave who accompanied a child to school. The Romans applied the term paedagogus more generally to one who taught young children. What are the roots of this word? schole (sxolh/) leisure ludus, ludi sport, diversion, joke; school cf. ludo-ludere-lusum play; joke, mock studeo-studēre be eager for, be diligent

There were various forms of rudimentary instruction in classical Athens: reading and writing, poetry and music, and athletics—all for a fee. Although they never mandated universal compulsory education, many Greek cities gradually began to supervise education with the help of wealthy benefactors who provided endowments and paid teachers’ salaries. Pedagogy was grounded in memorization and recitation, and discipline was strict. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

rudis, rudis rough; unskilled > erudio-erudire-eruditum polish; educate tueor-tuēri-tuitum look after, guard cf. tutor, tutoris guardian, protector disco-discere learn > discipulus or discipula pupil and disciplina instruction, learning didacton (didakto/n) taught docēo-docēre-doctum show, teach memoria, memoriae memory

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Higher Education Once the fundamentals had been mastered, it was possible to continue one’s education in a variety of subjects. Participation in public life demanded an ability to speak and argue well, and sophistae, men who claimed to teach not only the skills of persuasive rhetoric and oratory but also a practical wisdom, often commanded large fees. Education thus came to be seen as a pragmatic means of producing good citizens and promoting cultural traditions. Not everyone approved of the sophists’ teaching methods or their goals. Plato’s denunciation of this kind of instruction, in which “the weaker argument is made to seem the stronger,” gave the term “sophist” the pejorative meaning it has today. At Plato’s school, the Academy, and at the Lyceum of Aristotle, advanced instruction was given in philosophy, mathematics, and science.The curriculum of the liberal arts, the product of the faculty of these institutions as well as the sophists, became the foundation of higher learning in Europe, and forms the basis of education in the modern college and university. Of course, it wasn’t always just seminars and lectures and a lot of hard work; campus life clearly held some pleasures, most notably symposia. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

oro-orare-oratum speak; pray sophon (sofo/n) wise, clever > sophistes (sofisth/j) expert, teacher pragma, pragmatos (pra=gma) matter, affair cf. praxis (pra=cij) business, transaction curro-currere-cursum run > curriculum, curriculi running, race; racecourse sem*n, seminis seed; origin > seminarium, seminarii garden, nursery for-fari-fatum speak facultas, facultatis skill, ability. What is the Latin root of this word? campus, campi plain, field symposion (sumpo/sion) drinking party

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It’s All Academic . . . The school founded by Plato was called the Academy. Today, the adjective academic is commonly used to mean scholarly or learned, but without practical application. But Not Too Academic In ancient Greece, the symposium was a gathering of men who were entertained by poets and musicians, as well as with wine. At the one described by Plato in his dialogue, The Symposium, the participants, including Socrates, try to define the meaning of eros. What Were You Saying? There are of course, many kinds of speeches; some may be flattering: Greek Word

English Meaning

encomion (e)gkw/mion) eulogia (eu)logi/a) panegyrikon (panhguriko/n)

a speech of praise fine language festive; flattering

But not all speech, of course, is complimentary. When Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, tried to rally the Greek cities to his cause, the Athenian orator Demosthenes delivered a series of stinging attacks against him. These diatribes were so harsh that the term philippic is now applied to any violent and bitter speech against an individual. diatribe (diatribh/)

a way of spending time; learned discussion; criticism. Its modern usage is pejorative: a harsh and abusive verbal attack.

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From Greek into Latin Some Greek and Latin nouns retain their original plural endings in English. Greek words that were adopted by the Romans often have Latin endings in English, e.g., Greek symposion > Latin symposium (sing.); symposia (plur.) Greek encomion > Latin encomium (sing.); encomia (plur.) Latin colloquium (sing.); colloquia (plur.) The Liberal Arts In the medieval universities of Europe, the liberal arts were divided into two classes of study: the quadrivium and the trivium.The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music; the trivium comprised grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic. What Latin words are at the root of these courses of study? The Key to Success The culture of ancient Greece was held in such high regard that when the first American fraternity was founded in 1776, it took its name, Phi Beta Kappa, from the initial letters of the Greek phrase, filosofi/a bi/ou kubernh/thj: Philosophy is the Guide of Life. It’s a useful thought.

BOOKS AND LIBRARIES

The first organized research library was said to have been established by Aristotle at the Lyceum, but certainly the largest and most famous library in antiquity was founded in the third century BCE at Alexandria in Egypt. It is claimed by contemporary sources that it contained 700,000 volumes. Associated with the library was the museum, an institute for advanced research under the aegis of the government, where scholars cataloged and edited much of the canon of ancient Greek literature. The production of books was a difficult and laborious task, since each text had to be copied by hand, and errors were inevitable. Most volumes were written on rolls of papyrus, although parchment, made from treated animal skins, was also used. The codex, forerunner of the modern book, with bound pages, was not in common use until the second century CE. Now, of course, with the use of computers and the electronic transmission, storage, and retrieval of information, some people believe that printed books may go the way of the feather pen and inkwell.

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Mosaic of a Cyclops. Fourth century CE (Piazza Amerina, Sicily)

Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

biblion (bibli/on) book > bibliothece (biblioqh/kh) library liber, libri book > librarium, librarii library aegis (ai)gi/j) shield, protection volumen, voluminis roll, book cf. volvo-volvere turn, roll papyros (pa/puroj) Egyptian papyrus plant, from whose fiber paper was made codex, codicis block of wood; tablet, book canon (kanw/n) rule; standard

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Going Around in Circles Research, the foundation of all good scholarship, is derived from the Latin verb circo-circare = to go around. Stop,Thief ! The root of the word plagiarism reveals just how serious a crime it is. plagio-plagiare-plagiatum = steal, kidnap Talking May Be Hazardous to Your Mental Health We have already seen that there are a great many Latin verbs that mean “to speak.” Some of them produce derivative nouns and adjectives that go beyond plain talking. Which words that have to do with speech can you find in the following sentence? “After taking elocution lessons, what fatal pronouncement did the loquacious oracle vocalize when it predicted your future?” Get to the Point Although many students find it hard to believe, punctuation is important for understanding the meaning of a sentence. Ancient Greek and Latin texts not only had no punctuation, but no spaces between words.These marks were invented by the librarians in Alexandria in the third century BCE, but it was not until the ninth century CE that they were used with any regularity. So consider yourself lucky; otherwise, you might get the wrong idea from the following sentence: “As we sat down to eat my father made a speech.” Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

sententia, sententiae cf. sentio-sentire = feel pungo-pungere-punctum periodos (peri/odoj) comma (ko/mma) colon (kw=lon) hyphen (u(fe/n) apostrophe (a)postrofh/) parenthesis (pare/nqesij)

opinion pierce, prick; sting, bite going around, circuit that which is cut off member; part of a clause in one; as a single word turning back or away from insertion; injection

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Answer the following questions, or fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 1. Our illusions help us __________with reality. 2. A good educator should __________ __________ knowledge from her students who are, of course, __________to learn. 3. A scholar needs __________to do research, or else he will __________in confusion. 4. What are two different current usages of rude? ____________________ ____________________ 5. An autodidact is __________ __________. 6. His disciples wanted to __________ what he had to say. 7. The first question a pragmatist asks is, “What can I __________?” 8. What is a rhetorical question? ____________________ Can you give an example? ______________________________________________________________________ 9. He was employing so many deceptive and even false arguments that everyone accused him of ____________________. 10. The speaker delivered an encomium to the mayor because he wished to __________ her. 11. His eyes __________ over the newspaper as he gave the headlines a cursory glance. 12. When the criminal confessed, he __________ what he had done. 13. What are two different usages of faculty? ____________________ ____________________

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14. If scholars got at the root of symposium, they would do more __________ than talking when they met. 15. Freud was a seminal figure in modern psychology because his work was the __________ for future work in the field. 16. Illegible writing __________ __________ __________. 17. When Roman law was codified, it was __________ into a __________. 18. What are the Spanish and French words for library? ____________________ ____________________ 19. Noncanonical works are those that lie outside the __________ of what is acceptable. 20. His sentences were so convoluted that they were all __________ __________. 21. A fabulous party is worth __________about. 22. We all wish we had a tutelary spirit who would __________us from harm. 23. He had only a rudimentary education, so he was _____________ in reading. 24. Her encyclopedic memory contained all kinds of __________. 25. His behavior was so ludicrous that we thought he was __________. 26. What are two different usages of oratory? ____________________ ____________________ 27. The project was done under the aegis of the mayor’s office. What does aegis mean in this context? __________ 28. What is the current usage of the word voluminous? ____________________ Can you figure out how it got this meaning? ______________________________

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29. What are two different usages of tuition? ____________________ ____________________

How are these usages related? ________________________________________

30. It was difficult to __________ __________ of him, even after his death; but the minister delivered a moving eulogy. 31. A plagiarist is__________ __________ someone else’s ideas or words. 32. What is the difference in meaning between famous and infamous? _______________________ _________________ 33. Even as I stood up to speak, I still couldn’t make up my mind: should I flatter the mayor with a __________or harshly attack him in a __________? 34. The words punctuation and punctual have the same Latin root but very different meanings. Do an etymological “search” to see how each word evolved into its present meaning.

punctuation ____________________________________________________________

punctual ____________________________________________________________

B. Playing Around Construct sentences using the following words. Your sentences need to indicate that you know the meaning of the word. 35. collusion

________________________________________

36. delusion

________________________________________

37. prelude

________________________________________

38. interlude

________________________________________

39. allusion

________________________________________

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C. Here are some more words, some of them quite elegant, that come into English unchanged from either Greek or Latin. Use your unabridged dictionary to find the original meanings and current usages of the following words: English Word

Greek or Latin Meaning

Current Usage

40. opprobrium

____________________

41. veto

____________________

42. eureka

____________________

43. kudos

____________________

44. memento

____________________

45. scintilla

____________________

46. lacuna

____________________

47. enigma

____________________

48. stigma

____________________

49. item

____________________

50. verbatim

____________________

51. hiatus

____________________

52. interim

____________________

16 The Classical Influence

Parthenon of Athens, the temple dedicated to Athena, protecting goddess of the city of Athens

We Athenians cultivate a taste for the beautiful with moderation and we love knowledge without softness. PERICLES Funeral Oration (430 BCE)

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E U RO P E A N D T H E C L A S S I C A L H E R I TAG E

Western European culture has seen itself as the intellectual heir, in both form and content, of the artistic traditions of Greece and Rome. Although a great variety of non-European cultural forces have also influenced the development of European thought, many of the European traditions of creative expression, from the plastic and decorative arts to architecture and literature, can trace their ancestry back to the monumental legacy of the civilizations of the classical world. T H E F I N E A RT S

The Greek exploration of spiritual and intellectual expression through the plastic arts established the forms and styles that were to become the reference points for all subsequent activity in these creative fields in classical antiquity. It was an influence that survived the end of the classical world. The European fascination with the human form, especially as expressed in sculpture, as well as the ideals of harmony and proportion that also provide the basis of classical architecture, perhaps have their origins in the Greek search for rationality, order, and measure in the visible world. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

creo-creare-creatum > cresco-crescere-cretum decus, decoris > decorus, -a, -um mnema (mnh=ma) ratio, rationis

bring forth, make arise, become visible ornament, splendor, honor; dignity suitable, proper monument, remembrance plan, thought; order

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Cithara player. Fifth-century BCE vase painting (Antikensammlungen, Munich)

Studying the Classics The term classical is usually applied to Greek art of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. More generally, it is used to describe the civilization of Greek and Roman antiquity, and has come to represent a particular artistic or architectural style modeled on Greek and Roman prototypes. classis = type, class > classicus = belonging to a class > belonging to the highest class Pots and Pans Greek pottery was valued both for its utility and its beauty. Often, elaborately decorated with scenes or figures from Greek myth, these products—ranging from storage jars to drinking cups—found their way all around the Mediterranean world. ceramia (keramei/a) = pottery

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CITY PLANNING

The Romans, whose aesthetic tastes were in part influenced by Greek models, were innovators as well, especially in the realm of both public and private architecture and city planning. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

urbs, urbis rus, ruris porta, portae agora (a)gora/) forum, fori circus, circi aedes, aedis > aedificium, aedificii domus, domi camera, camerae cella, cellae fenestra, fenestrae murus, muri cubiculum, cubiculi cf. cubo-cubare-cubitum1 Palatium, Palatii

city, town countryside city gate marketplace; place of assembly outside space; marketplace; place of assembly circle room building. What Latin verb can you see in this word? house vault; private room small room window wall bedroom lie down one of the seven hills of Rome, on which the Emperor Augustus built his residence

Going Places In order to unite the various provinces of an empire that extended from Britain to Mesopotamia, from the Danube to North Africa, Rome built a remarkable system of roads whose remains can be seen even today. The Emperor Augustus erected the “Golden Milestone” in the Roman Forum, and all distances within the empire were measured from this point, and it was from here that all the major roads within the empire diverged. Thus we have the expression, “all roads lead to Rome.” What does this phrase now mean? Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

via, viae iter, itineris

street, road, way road, route; journey

1. In compounds, cubo often takes the form -cumbo, cumbere, -cubitum.

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L I T E R AT U R E

The ancient Greeks created enduring models for many of the genres of later European literature. Poetry in all its forms, as well as tragedy, comedy, and historiography, all can trace their roots to the classical literary traditions. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

augeo-augēre-auctum enlarge; increase > auctor, auctoris one who increases; originator drama (dra=ma) doing historia (i(stori/a) inquiry hymnos (u(/mnoj) song in praise of a deity littera, litterae letter; literature (in plur.) paean (paia/n) song of thanksgiving to Apollo, god of healing

Mask of a tragic actor

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T H E AT E R

Although its exact origins are a matter of debate, it is clear that Greek theater had its beginnings in religious ritual: tragedies and comedies were performed in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility, who promised his worshippers release from the constraints of ordinary life. Attending the festival of Dionysus, at which the plays were performed, was a religious, civic, and perhaps psychological, obligation. The Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his definition of the function of tragedy, said that it was the representation (mimesis) of an action that, by means of arousing “pity and fear” in the individual, attempted to purge him of these emotions. The production of the tragedies, which for the most part drew their themes and plots from Greek myth, was part of a competition subsidized by the wealthiest citizens, who paid the costs, including the training of the dramatic chorus, as a civic obligation. The judges, chosen by lot in order to prevent bribery, seem to have based their awards on audience applause. In its most developed form, the cast consisted of three actors (female roles were played by men) and the members of the chorus. Originally, the author also acted in the production of his work; eventually the state provided the leading actor. The playwright Sophocles (496–406 BCE), author of Oedipus and Antigone, is said to have been a skilled musician and graceful dancer as well, who performed in several of his own dramas. Not all Greek theater was serious and solemn. Comedy, with its sometimes fantastic plots, took pleasure in being raucous and often lewd, and in poking fun at popular religious beliefs and social relationships, as well as at prominent Athenian citizens, politicians, artists, and intellectuals.

Greek or Latin Word

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English Meaning

comos (kw=moj) revel; merry-making > comoedia (kwm%di/a) revel-song; comedy catharsis (ka/qarsij) cleansing; purification choreuo (xoreu/w) dance in a circle character (xarakth/r) mark, stamp; special type clamo-clamare-calamatum shout, call out criticon (kritiko/n) able to judge > hypocrites (u(pokrith/j) actor cf. crisis (kri/sij) decision; trial; dispute histrio, histrionis actor mimesis (mi/mhsij) representation; imitation orchestra (o)rxh/stra) place where the chorus danced plaudo-plaudere-plausum clap, strike in compounds, -plodo, -plodere, -plosum protagonists (prwtagonisth/j) leading actor scene (skhnh/) tent; stage wall; stage backdrop theaomai (qea/omai) look at, see > theatron (qe/atron) theater tragoedia (trag%di/a) literally, goat-song; tragedy

The Muses Traditionally, every artist claimed that he was inspired by the Muses, the divine daughters of Zeus and the goddess Mnemosyne (Memory).The nine sisters each had a particular sphere of creative activity over which she presided. musike (mousikh/) art, letters; accomplishment Goddess

Artistic or Intellectual Realm

Calliope Epic poetry Clio History Erato Lyric poetry Euterpe Flute playing Melpomene Tragedy Polyhymnia Sacred song Terpsichore Dance Thalia Comedy Urania Astronomy

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MUSIC

Much of musical terminology and many musical instruments—woodwinds, strings, and percussion—have classical roots. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

musice (mousikh/) belonging to the Muses sono-sonare-sonitum sound melodia (mel%di/a) song canto-cantare-cantatum sing organon (o)/rganon) instrument stringo-stringere-strictum draw tight, bind; cut off percutio-percutere-percussum strike cornu, cornūs horn cymbalon (ku/mbalon) cymbal tympanon (tu/mpanon) drum cithara (kiqa/ra) lyre, lute tuba, tubae trumpet

Linus, music teacher of the Greek hero Heracles. The Greek hero was said to have killed Linus after he criticized his student’s playing. (Staatliches Museum, Schwerin, Germany)

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Practice, Practice, Practice If you play an instrument, you are familiar with the terms that are used to describe the various tempi, or rates of speed in a musical composition. Almost all of these terms are Italian, since in the seventeenth century, Italian composers were the first to use a system of notation to indicate the speed at which a piece was to be played. Italian is, of course, a direct descendant of Latin. Italian Term

Musical Meaning

allegro vivace cf. vivo-vivere = live presto forte piano

quickly alacer, alacris = quick, brisk lively (faster than allegro) vivax, vivacis = brisk, lively very quickly loudly softly

Latin Root

praesto (adv.) = available, ready fortis, fortis = strong, brave planus, plani = even, level

Tempi is the plural form of the Italian noun tempo. What is its Latin root? Let’s Hear It for the Maestro The shout of encore, meaning more, or again, is derived from the Latin phrase in hanc horam (at this time; still, yet). What is the derivation of maestro? From A to Z The first note on the musical scale in the medieval period was designated by the Greek letter gamma, while the final note was called ut. Thus, the word gamut, a contraction of gamma and ut, was used to denote the entire scale of tones. Today, the word is used to mean the entire range of any area, as in the phrase, “his emotions ran the gamut from grief to rage.”

AT H L E T I C S , C O M P E T I T I O N , A N D E X C E L L E N C E

Theater was not the only form of entertainment available to the Greeks and Romans, and the competitive spirit extended into the realm of physical activity. Wrestling, jumping, discus and javelin throwing, and racing were all part of public contests sponsored by the state or by wealthy citizens. Heracles, the mythical Greek hero known for his remarkable strength, was credited with founding the Olympic games; and although they were dedicated to Zeus, the contests in the stadium provided an area for the demonstration of human excellence.The entrants competed on behalf of their cities, and victors often received the same kind of public prestige (and rewards) as modern athletes.

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Floor mosaic, depicting a gladiatorial contest, from a second century CE Roman villa in Nennig, Germany

Sometimes, the original purpose of the contest seems to have been lost. Roman gladiatorial combat, for example, probably had begun as part of funeral ritual, but by the time of the emperors, sponsorship of these violent spectacles had become merely a means for politicians to win popular support and to keep the populace happy. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

agon (a)gw/n) contest, struggle arena, arenae sand; arena, place for contests athlos (a)=qloj) contest discos (di/skoj) plate, disc dromos (dro/moj) running gladius, gladii sword gymnazo (gumna/zw) exercise naked, train peto-petere-petitum seek, ask; strive for prestigiae, prestigiarum delusion, deception. Check your dictionary to see how the word took on a positive meaning pugno-pugnare-pugnatum fight stadion (sta/dion) race course sthenos (sqe/noj) strength testor-testari-testatum show, prove; witness

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Leisure, the Freedom from Activity, Is Legal The etymology of the word leisure is the Latin licet = it is permitted. Setting a Record According to Greek tradition, when the Athenians defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE, the runner Pheidippides raced the twenty-six miles back to Athens to announce the good news. Marathon now denotes any long race, while the ending -thon has been used to coin many new words, all having the sense of endurance, such as telethon or walkathon.

Approval Ratings When a fighter fell in the arena, Roman spectators often expressed their feelings. Traditionally, the gesture of thumbs up indicated that the gladiator should be spared by his opponent; thumbs down meant that the victor should show no mercy.The Roman satirist Juvenal declared that the citizens of Rome had become so decadent that they cared only for panem et circenses, “bread and circuses,” that is, free food and public entertainment, provided by ambitious politicians eager to buy votes. Latin Word

English Meaning

ambitio, ambitionis going around; canvassing for votes; desire for office cado-cadere-casum fall in compounds, -cido, -cidere-cisum panis, panis bread votum, voti vow, oath

Some New Beginnings You have already learned (p. 50) that -sco indicates what is called an inceptive verb, meaning that the action has just begun, or is continuing. Here are a few more verbs that belong in this category: Latin Inceptive Form

English Meaning

effervesco-effervescere adolesco-adolescere-adultum coalesco-coalescere-coalitum obsolesco-obsolescere-obsoletum

begin to boil, foam, bubble grow up grow together, become one wear out, decay; go out of use

Monumental head from the tomb of Antiochus, first-century BCE ruler of Commagene, on Mt. Taurus in Turkey

1 6 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ Answer each question or fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the italicized word. Make sure that the sentence is grammatically correct. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. A. Fine Arts and City Planning 1. A domesticated animal should live in your __________. 2. By looking at the itinerary, I knew which __________ he had taken. 3. What is the difference in meaning between urban and urbane? ____________________ ____________________ 4. Their indecorous behavior was __________ at all __________ for the occasion. 5. What is the shape of London’s Piccadilly Circus? __________ 6. I don’t know why my boss was so angry when she found me napping in my cubicle; after all, it was designed for __________. 7. When he threatened to defenestrate me, I moved away __________the __________. 8. As I saw the portals close, I knew I’d never get beyond those __________. 9. I went to see the murals he had painted, but they had torn down the __________. 10. What activity took place in the Roman Forum that gives the word its current usage? ____________________ 11. The house had a rustic charm that can only be found in the __________. 12. The legislative branch of the U.S. government is bicameral. That means that it has __________ __________. 13. Although she gave her rationale for acting this way, I still don’t understand her __________.

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14. If it is incumbent upon you to do a task, the responsibility __________ __________ you. What is another current usage of this word? __________ 15. What Latin word is the etymological connection between increase and crescent?

____________________ What is the current usage of each word?

a. ____________________

b. ____________________

16. A mnemonic device helps you __________ something. 17. I was pleased to get a pay increment, because that meant my salary would __________. 18. When my mother reiterated her instructions for the tenth time, I told her she was going __________ over the same __________again and again. 19. The restrictions placed on the speakers imposed by the chairman _________ further debate. 20. Their collaboration was a failure, because they were unable to __________ __________. 21. I found him in a recumbent position. What was he doing? __________ 22. The words edifice and edification have the same root but very different meanings. Check your dictionary to see if you can figure out the history of both words.

B. Literature,Theater, Music 23. It was clear he had won plaudits for his performance: everyone was __________him. 24. Everyone’s character has its own particular __________. 25. The choreographer __________ __________ for a performance. 26. When I heard the clamor in the street, I looked to see who was __________. 27. He took a second job to augment his wages because needed to __________ his income. 28. We had reached a crisis, and it was time to make a __________. 29. Paying his debts was a cathartic experience, because it __________ him of guilt. 30. I knew he was a hypocrite, only __________ that he was sorry. 31. When the witness attested to the evidence he__________ __________ its truth.

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32. Cliometrics is that branch of the study of __________ that attempts to __________ economic or social facts. 33. If orchestra had kept its original meaning, what would happen there? __________ 34. Critics are supposed to be able to __________ works of art. 35. I suffered a concussion when I was __________ __________ on the head. 36. A cantata is a musical composition that is meant to be __________. 37. What is a cornucopia? ____________________. Construct a sentence using the word. ______________________________________________________________________ 38. I took drastic measures because it was clearly necessary to __________ something. 39. If I agonize over a decision, I am __________ to decide what to do. 40. I started to scream in pain, but my mother said, “Stop the histrionics; I know you’re only __________.” 41. As the pantomime watched me, he __________ __________ my actions. 42. A sonogram is __________produced by__________ waves. 43. She had terpsichorean aspirations, but unfortunately, she couldn’t __________. 44. She wasn’t very imaginative: her original thoughts ran the __________ from A to B. 45. When I asked him to clarify his idea, he tried to __________ it __________. 46. The ear’s tympanic membrane acts as a __________. 47. She __________ __________ an exclamation of disgust. 48. In the sentence, “he took what I said literally,” what is the present meaning of literally? __________ 49. What kind of entertainment should be shown at a theater named the Thalia? __________ 50. Although the teacher said, “Finish your homework with alacrity,” I did not do it __________. 51. She showed great fortitude under stress; I would not have been so __________. 52. After the accident, he suffered from amnesia, and had __________ __________ of what had happened. 53. What is the etymology of viaduct? __________ __________What is it? __________

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C. Athletics and Contests 54. An invincible enemy is __________ __________ __________. 55. A votive offering is one made in fulfillment of a __________. 56. One’s last will and testament is a document that has been __________. 57. A remark that impugns your reputation __________ __________ it. 58. If you suffer from myasthenia, what is the matter? __________ __________ __________ 59. A gymnasium is a __________ people __________. 60. He was casual in his approach to life. He took things as they __________. 61. What is a palindrome? ____________________ Use your unabridged dictionary to find the meaning. What are the roots of this word? ___________________________ 62. A pugnacious individual is always

__________ a desire for __________.

63. Calisthenics are a means of increasing bodily __________. 64. A petition is a means of __________ for something. 65. The chief weapon of a gladiator was his __________. 66. His political ambitions were fueled by a __________. 67. The original meaning of the word arena was ground covered with __________. What are two current English usages of this word? ____________________ ____________________ 68. She entered the pentathlon, although she wasn’t sure she could finish all __________ __________. 69. Syndrome is a medical term for a group of complaints that __________ __________. 70. His effervescent personality __________ to remind me of a __________ champagne. 71. Physically, he was an adult, but it was clear to everyone that he had never __________. 72. Although we tried to form a coalition, our ideas never seemed to __________. 73. That technology is rapidly becoming obsolescent, and will soon __________.

17 Myth, Religion, and P h i l o s o p h y

Head of bronze statue of Zeus or Poseidon, found at Artemision (National Museum, Athens)

Homer and Hesiod have attributed to the gods all things that are a shame and a reproach among men: stealing, adultery and deceiving one another. XENOPHANES (sixth-century BCE philosopher)

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G R E E K A N D RO M A N R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H

The traditional religion of the Greeks and Romans was polytheistic in structure, and the Greeks and Romans loved to tell stories about all their gods and goddesses: what they looked like, how they behaved, whom among the mortals and other deities they loved or hated. Although the religious practices and beliefs of the Greek and Roman worlds eventually disappeared, the stories of the gods and heroes contained in classical literature became one of the most important foundation stones of European cultural traditions. The themes of Greek and Roman myth have been utilized over and over again in literature, art, and music, while the names and exploits of the various gods, fabulous creatures, and mortal heroes and heroines still live on in our language. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

religio, religionis religion < ligo-ligare-ligatum1 tie, bind theos (qeo/j) god deus, dei god divus, divi god, divine mythos (mu=qoj) story fabula, fabulae story heros (h/(rwj) hero. The Greek word denotes a semi-divine being, whose exploits brought him everlasting fame.

T H E G R E E K A N D RO M A N G O D S

Just as there are similarities between the Greek and Latin languages because both belong to the Indo-European family and thus have a common ancestry, there are also similarities between the pantheons of their gods for the very same reason. In addition, the Romans adapted and retold many Greek myths for their own use, so that often a hero will have both a Greek and Latin name, e.g., Odysseus (Greek) was called Ulysses by the Romans. Because Roman culture had a more direct influence on European tradition than did Greek, the names of the Roman deities are perhaps more familiar to us.

1.The etymology of religio is unclear, although most scholars believe it is derived from the verb ligo-ligare, perhaps from a sense of viewing religion as a way of binding the community together.

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The Greek Gods and Their Roman Counterparts Greek God

Roman God

Zeus Jupiter (Jove) Hera Juno Poseidon Neptune Demeter Ceres Athene Minerva Artemis Diana Ares Mars Aphrodite Venus Hades, Plutus Saturnus, Pluto Hermes Mercury Hephaestus Vulcan 2 Apollo Titans Dionysus (Bacchus) Pan Nemesis

Function ruler of gods and mortals wife and consort of Zeus (Jove); patron of marriage and the family ruler of the sea goddess of grain and fertility goddess of wisdom; patron of arts and crafts; protector of heroes goddess of the hunt; protector of wild animals; guardian of children god of war and destruction goddess of sexual passion and fertility god of the underworld messenger of the gods blacksmith and fire god god of light and inspiration; patron of the arts race of giants who ruled the world before Zeus god of wine and flowing fertility, who inspired madness in his followers god of shepherds and flocks, often associated with Dionysus goddess of retribution

I t ’s B e e n D e c i d e d

The limits on human mortality and the constraints placed on the power of free will are embodied in the figures of the Fates. They were envisioned by some ancient writers as three sisters who spun, measured, and cut the thread that is our lifespan. Clotho (the Spinner) Lachesis (the Measurer) Atropos (the Cutter)

2. The Romans called Apollo, the Titans, Atlas, Prometheus, Dionysus, Pan, the Muses, and Nemesis by their Greek names.

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T H E C A L E N DA R

The English names of the months of the year that we use today are derived from their Latin names, although the Roman calendar was structured differently from ours. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

dies, diei day hemera (h(me/ra) day mensis, mensis month annus, anni year

The Months Month

Named For:

January Janus, the two-faced god of doorways, gates, and beginnings February Februa, a Roman feast of purification held during that month March Mars April < aperio-aperire, because this is the time when the earth begins to bloom May Maia, a goddess of fertility June Juno July Julius Caesar August Augustus Caesar September, October These months, of course, derive from Roman numbers. November, December How many months, then, did the Roman year originally have?

What Day Is Today? . . . The Calends was the first day of the Roman month. Since monthly interest on loans was calculated by the Calends, an account book was called a calendarium. The only other days of the month noted by the Romans were the Nones (the fifth of the month, except in March, May, July, and October, when it fell on the seventh), and the Ides (the thirteenth, except in March, May, July, and October, when it fell on the fifteenth). It was not until quite late that the Romans adopted the practice of naming days in a repetitive cycle. The English names of most of the days of the week are derived from the gods of Germanic myth.

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OT H E R T I M E S . . .

Latin or Greek Word

English Meaning

hora, horae hour ante meridiem before the middle of the day post meridiem after the middle of the day cras tomorrow eon (ai)w/n) an age; a long period of time aevum, aevi an age; a period of time

O T H E R P L AC E S . . .

Greek myth describes an often fabulous world whose landscape has become part of our vocabulary: Mount Olympus: residence of many of the Greek gods, who were thus referred to as the Olympians. Styx: the main river in the underworld, and also its boundary line.The ancient Greeks believed that in order to enter the realm of Hades, one had to be ferried across the Styx by the boatman Charon, at the cost of one obol; thus, the dead were buried with a coin in their mouths. The adjective stygian is used to describe a place that is dark and gloomy. Lethe: river in the underworld whose waters caused the dead to forget their past lives. The noun lethargy is the state of mental apathy and physical drowsiness. Elysium or Elysian Fields: the dwelling place of those few fortunate mortals who had been granted eternal conscious life and happiness by the gods. Augean Stables: the stables of King Augeas were so filthy that the Greek hero Heracles, as one of his twelve labors, had to divert two rivers in order to cleanse them in a single day. Labyrinth: a maze built on Crete for King Minos by the famed Greek architect Daedalus in order to imprison the Minotaur, a man-eating creature that was half-bull and half-human.

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Temple of Concord, Agrigento, Sicily. Fifth century BCE

The human imagination is a powerful force, and many of the monsters of classical myth continue to haunt us: Cerberus: three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to the Underworld. He was friendly to those who entered the house of Hades, but ate those who tried to leave. His name can be applied to any fierce guardian or watchman. Chimera: a fire-breathing monster that had the head of a lion, the torso of a goat, and the tail of a snake. The adjective chimerical describes something that is wildly fanciful or unrealistic. Gryphon or Griffin: a mythical creature with the head and wings of an eagle and body of a lion. Harpies: bird-like women who tormented a number of individuals in Greek myth by snatching away their food as they tried to eat.

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Roman river god (Museo Capitolino, Rome)

Medusa: one of three monstrous Gorgons, she had hair of snakes, and her glance turned men into stone. She was slain by the Greek hero Perseus. Phoenix: a fabulous bird of great beauty, said to live for 500 years, after which it would immolate itself on a pyre, and then rise up, once again, from the ashes. Sirens: bird-like women who lured sailors to their deaths by singing sweet and entrancing melodies while sitting on the treacherous rocks that rose up from the sea. Sphinx: a winged female monster who would eat young men who could not answer her riddle, “What walks on four legs in the morning, two legs in the afternoon, and three legs in the evening?” She committed suicide when Oedipus gave the correct answer: man.The noun may be used to describe anyone who gives responses that are difficult to interpret.

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Other myths have become part of our common cultural vocabulary, for allusions are still made to the stories of: The Amazons. The Amazons were said to be a race of warrior women who lived without men and who excelled in those activities, such as hunting and fighting, normally considered to belong to the male sphere. The word amazon is now used to describe a tall and physically powerful woman. Atlas. Atlas was a Titan who was condemned by the victorious Zeus to hold the sky on his shoulders. He gives his name to any bound collection of maps or charts. The Golden Fleece. The Greek hero Jason was sent on a meant-to-be fatal quest to retrieve the golden fleece of a ram.The fleece was guarded by a fire-breathing dragon that never slept; but Jason, with the help of the witch Medea, was able to steal the skin and escape. King Midas and the Golden Touch. Because he had done a kindness to the god Dionysus, Midas was granted any wish he might desire. Requesting that everything he touch turn to gold, he was at first delighted with his good fortune, but soon begged the god to take back his gift. He had turned his daughter into gold, and he was starving to death as well. Although the gift of the golden touch proved to be almost disastrous for Midas, we now use the term in a positive way. The Labors of Hercules. Hercules (or as the Greeks called him, Heracles) was the greatest of all the ancient mythological heroes. In order to gain immortal fame, he had to perform twelve death-defying labors, including a journey to the Underworld. Pandora’s Box. Pandora, the first woman, who was created by the gods as revenge for Prometheus’s theft of fire, was given a box containing all the evils of the world. Instructed not to open it, she disobeyed and released every kind of suffering into the world. Only Blind Hope remained inside. The phrase is used today to mean a source of unforeseen trouble or problems. Procrustes. Procrustes was said to have entertained his guests by inviting them to spend the night. If they did not fit exactly into the bed he offered, he would stretch them on a rack or lop off their heads to ensure a perfect night’s sleep.The adjective procrustean is used to describe arbitrary and violent means of insuring conformity.

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Prometheus. A Titan, Prometheus stole fire from the gods because he pitied mankind. In punishment, Zeus had him bound to a rock, where each day an eagle would tear at his liver. Some say that he was freed eventually by the Greek hero, Heracles. The adjective Promethean means boldly original and creative. Proteus. Proteus was a god of the sea who, like the water, could change himself into whatever form he wished. The adjective protean means extremely variable or changeable. Sisyphus. As punishment for some unspecified crime, Sisyphus was condemned by the gods to forever push a boulder to the top of a hill in the Underworld, only to watch it roll back down again. His name has become synonymous with futility. Tantalus. Tantalus, who either betrayed the secrets of the gods or attempted to trick them into eating human flesh, was punished in the Underworld. He was forced to stand in a pool up to his chin; but when he bent down to quench his overwhelming thirst, the water evaporated. Above his head hung bunches of fruit; but when

Procession in honor of the god Dionysus (British Museum)

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he reached up to pick them, they were beyond his grasp. The adjective tantalizing describes a tormenting desire for something that is unobtainable. T ROY

Perhaps the best known and most enduring of all the Greek myths is the cycle of stories that have to do with the Trojan War, a ten-year struggle waged between the city of Troy and the Greek forces over the beautiful Helen. Writers and artists through the ages have continued to draw upon the characters and events that the Greek poet Homer first described in the Iliad and the Odyssey more than 2,700 years ago. The names that figured prominently in the story of Troy are still part of our imaginative vocabulary. Apple of Discord. Eris, the goddess of Strife, angered at not being invited to the wedding of the mortal Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, threw a golden apple inscribed with the words, “to the fairest,” among the divine guests. Athene, Hera, and Aphrodite all laid claim and appealed to Zeus to choose among them. The Judgment of Paris. Zeus, wisely deciding not to get involved, chose Paris, a young Trojan prince, to judge the beauty contest among the goddesses. Each offered him a bribe, but Paris selected Aphrodite because she promised him Helen. Helen. Helen may have been Paris’s prize, but unfortunately, she was married to Menelaus, a Greek king. It was the kidnapping of Helen, who had a face “that launched a thousand ships,” that led to the outbreak of the war. Achilles.The son of Peleus and Thetis, Achilles was the greatest of the Greek heroes to fight at Troy. According to one tradition, his mother dipped him in the river Styx in order to make his body invulnerable. Unfortunately, she was holding him by his heel, which was then unprotected against a fatal wound. The term Achilles heel is used to describe a point of emotional or physical vulnerability. Myrmidons.The Myrmidons were the loyal group of Achilles’s followers who accompanied him to Troy. The name is now applied to anyone who blindly follows the commands of his leader. Hector. In the Iliad, Hector is the gallant leader of the Trojan forces; but later traditions depicted him as a domineering bully. Thus, we have the verb hector, which means to act or speak in an overbearing way.

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Cassandra. The daughter of the king of Troy, Cassandra had been given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, who had hoped to win her love. When she spurned him, the god caused her not to be believed. She foresaw the destruction of the city, but her warnings were ignored. Her name is now applied to anyone who predicts gloom and disaster. Trojan Horse. After ten years of fighting, the Greeks still had not taken Troy, for the city had strong and well-defended walls. It was only through the trick of the wooden horse that the Greeks were able to gain entry into the city and then destroy it. Although the Trojan seer Laocoon had warned them with the words, “Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks, even those bearing gifts,” the Trojans dragged the huge horse, which the Greeks had built with the help of Athene, inside the city gates, unaware that it was filled with Greek soldiers. While the Trojans slept, the Greeks climbed out and overwhelmed the city. The phrase Trojan Horse is now applied to anyone or anything that seeks to destroy from within. Stentor. Stentor was the herald of the Greek army and had a voice as loud as those of fifty men. The adjective stentorian is now applied to a person having a loud and powerful voice. Odysseus. Odysseus was a brave and clever fighter at Troy, but his confrontation with danger really began on his journey back to his native Ithaca, a trip that took him nine years. Despite his extraordinary adventures, recorded in the Odyssey, all that Odysseus longed for was to return home. Penelope. While Odysseus wandered, Penelope, his faithful wife, kept off the advances of many suitors who wished not only to marry her, but also to gain Odysseus’s kingdom. By a variety of clever stratagems, she fended them off until Odysseus’s return. Penelope became the model of the faithful wife. Mentor. Mentor, a friend of Odysseus, gave helpful advice and counsel to Odysseus’s son, Telemachus, while Odysseus was absent. His name now means a wise counselor or teacher. The story of the Trojan War and the aftermath of its destruction were retold by the Roman poet Vergil in his epic, the Aeneid. The Romans traditionally claimed to be the descendants of those few brave Trojan warriors, led by the hero Aeneas, who made their way out of the burning city to find a new home in Italy. This work, modeled on both the Iliad and the Odyssey, contains many notable lines of Latin verse, among the most famous of which are:

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Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentis “Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks, even those bearing gifts.” Varium et mutabile semper femina. “A woman is a fickle and changeable thing.” A N C I E N T P E O P L E S A N D P L AC E S

Personalities from Greek and Roman history, as well as real places in the ancient world, have also found their way into English vocabulary. Arcadia. Arcadia, a region in southwestern Greece, was viewed by ancient poets as a place of bucolic simplicity. Later writers continued to celebrate that tradition, and the adjective arcadian is now used to describe an idealized rural existence. Rich as Croesus. Croesus, a sixth-century BCE king of Lydia, was said to have been so rich that his name has come to mean a person of untold wealth.

Odysseus offering wine to the Cyclops Polyphemus (Vatican Museum)

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Draconian. Draco, a seventh-century BCE Athenian lawgiver, produced a legal code so harsh in its penalties that his laws were said to have been written in blood, not ink. Any unusually severe measure may be described as draconian. Laconic. The ancient city-state of Sparta was located in the region of Greece called Laconia. Since the Spartans were known for the brevity of their speech, the adjective laconic may be used to describe an individual who is concise in his remarks. Mausoleum. The widow of the fourth-century BCE King Mausolus built a tomb for her husband at Halicarnassus that was so spectacularly decorated with sculpture that it became synonymous with an elaborate monument to the dead. Meander. The Maeander River, in Asia Minor, was noted for its twisted and winding path into the Aegean Sea. The verb meander now describes action that is aimless or wandering. Pyrrhic victory. In the third century BCE, Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, fought and won many battles against the Romans, but at such great cost that he is reported to have said, “One more victory like this and I am undone.” A pyrrhic victory, then, is one that is gained at too great a cost. Solecism. The inhabitants of ancient Soloi were so famous for their terrible Greek grammar that they gave their name to the incorrect usage of language or manners. Solon. Solon, an Athenian leader of the early sixth century BCE, was noted for his keen sense of justice. His social and political reforms laid the groundwork for the Athenian democracy, and his name now may be used to describe a wise statesman or lawmaker. Spartan. The inhabitants of Sparta prided themselves on their rigorous, disciplined, and simple way of life. To live in this way may be described as spartan. Sybaritic.The inhabitants of the ancient Greek city of Sybaris, on the other hand, were noted for their luxurious and excessive way of life. Although the city was destroyed in the sixth century BCE, it survives in the adjective sybaritic, which describes the enjoyment of sensuous and indulgent pleasures.

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Philosophy is literally the “love of wisdom,” but for the Greeks philosophy had as its original impetus the search for the causes of things, both physical and ethical. The earliest Greek philosophers, who were called the physicists, investigated the nature and constituent parts of the physical cosmos, and the relationship between the world of nature and the world of human activity. The focus of later Greek and Roman philosophy, however, was the realm of human action, behavior, and spiritual goals: how are we to act best in this world? What is the best form of polity? Is it possible to achieve happiness? Is the human soul immortal? The various schools of ancient philosophy still find expression today, not only in the questions they raised and the ideals they pursued, but in their language and forms of argumentation as well. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

sophia (sofi/a) wisdom ethos (h)=qoj) custom, usage; character, disposition mos, moris custom, usage; manner ingenium, ingenii natural quality; inborn characteristic cf. genus, generis

Ancient Greek Schools of Philosophy Platonism: the doctrine of the fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher Plato and his successors. Because Plato taught the highest form of love was that of the soul for the Good, the term platonic is most often used now to refer to his elevation above all else of spiritual love untouched by physical desire. Stoicism: the doctrines of the school of philosophy founded by the fourth century BCE by Zeno; the word stoic is now used to refer to one of the central teachings of the school, that one should submit uncomplainingly to Fate and “go with the flow.” The adjective is derived from stoa (stoa/), a detached portico in Athens where Zeno supposedly taught his followers. Epicureanism: the teachings of the fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher Epicurus, who preached that the highest good is pleasure, which his followers interpreted as freedom from pain or disturbance, but which his critics condemned as the pursuit of unbridled freedom and self-indulgence. The adjective is now used to refer to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures, especially in eating and drinking.

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Hedonism: the doctrine that teaches that pleasure or happiness is the highest good. The noun is derived from hedone (h(donh/), and now connotes an excessive devotion to physical pleasure. Cynicism: the doctrine of a school of Greek philosophy that preached independence of action and complete freedom from social conventions. The etymology of the name is a matter of debate; the root of the word is kyon, kynos (ku/wn = dog), and it has been suggested that the name derived from the fact that the Cynics were noted for their rude behavior and took special pleasures in violating the rules of polite society. Perhaps the most famous of the Cynics was the fourth-century BCE Diogenes, who went about with a lantern saying that he was looking for an honest man. Today the word is used to describe someone who questions social values and distrusts human sincerity and moral purpose. Skepticism: The skeptic philosophers taught that since sense perceptions were deceptive, there was no possibility of absolute knowledge about anything, and therefore one was to withhold judgment about everything. Pyrrhon, the fourth-century BCE founder of the school, taught that nobody has yet found the truth, so why distress ourselves? Be genuinely indifferent to all that happens, for appearances are enough to live by. Forms of Philosophical and Logical Argumentation Latin Phrase

Literal Meaning

Current Meaning

a fortiori from the stronger a posteriori from the one after a priori from the one before ad hoc to this thing

for a still stronger reason from effect to cause; based on observation or experience from cause to effect; validity independent of experience for a special purpose

ad hominem

against the man

appealing to prejudice or emotion

ad rem

to the matter

relevant or pertinent

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Because Greek was the primary language of many of the earliest Christian writers, much of the sacred language of Christianity is Greek in origin. Greek or Latin Word

English Meaning

biblos (bi/bloj) book dogma (do/gma) decree; opinion; teaching doxa (do/ca) belief; opinion cf. doceo-docēre-doctum = show, teach apostello (a)poste/llw) send out martys, martyros (ma/rtuj) witness oecumene (oi)koume/nh) inhabited world angelos (a)/ggeloj) messenger ecclesia (e)kklhsi/a) assembly hieros (i(ero/j) sacred hagios (a(/gioj) sacred, holy; saint credo-credere-creditum believe, trust sacrum, sacri sacred, holy templum, templi temple

Sacred Space The root of the English word church is almost unrecognizable in its Anglicized form. It is derived from cyriacon (kuriako/n = belonging to the Lord); the Greek-based word was introduced into Old English at the time of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 597 CE.

1 7 : E X E R C I S E S

N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Which mythological figures or places appear in this paragraph, and what does each of them represent? The plutocrats looked down from the Olympian heights of the corporate boardroom as they watched the plebeians on the stock exchange floor panic at the mercurial behavior of the prices of cereal futures. Despite their saturnine expressions, the titans of industry actually felt jovial at this turn of events.

English Word

Mythological Figure or Place

English Meaning

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

B. Answer each question or fill in the blank with the literal meaning of the italicized word or part of a word. If you are unsure of the meaning, check your unabridged dictionary. 9. What do Janus and a janitor have in common? ______________________________. 10. Why did the bodybuilder who called himself Charles Atlas choose that stage name? ____________________

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11. A martial spirit is useful in times of__________. 12. I thought I had gotten away with the crime, but the policeman proved to be my __________. 13. The ancient Romans believed that the eruptions of fire and lava from Mt. Vesuvius were caused by the god __________. 14. When the emperor Augustus was deified, the Roman senate decreed that he had been __________ into a__________. 15. “It’s been eons since I saw you,” he cried. He was exaggerating, but it really had been__________. 16. If you put off for tomorrow what you should do today, you are __________. 17. Ephemeral ideas last __________ __________. 18. What do the abbreviations A.M. and P.M. represent?

__________ __________

19. I was terrified, because the __________ darkness made it impossible to know where I was. 20. The labyrinthine structure of the building confused me; I felt as if I were lost in __________. 21. What is the chief symptom of lethargy? __________ 22. My mother said my room was so dirty that it reminded her of the__________; and so I began the Sisyphean task of cleaning it, even though I knew my efforts would be__________. 23. My secretary sits outside my office like a __________, always guarding and protecting me from unwanted visitors. 24. I was tormented by the __________ aroma coming from the bakery, but, unfortunately, I was on a diet. Like a__________, the chocolate cake called out to me, “Eat me”; but I resisted. 25. After the movie flopped, everyone said the actor’s career had gone up in flames; but the following year, like the__________, he rose from the ashes. 26. Many politicians have a __________ability to change positions on almost any issue. 27. He warned her not to ask those questions, for it would only open up a __________ that would cause her great unhappiness. 28. Everywhere he went he was surrounded by his__________, who would do anything he wanted.

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29. His hectoring tones revealed his __________ personality. 30. A person who gives wise advice and counsel may be called a __________. 31. To speak in stentorian tones is to talk__________. 32. A faithful wife may be described as resembling__________. 33. His constant predictions of impending disaster turned him into a__________, whom no one believed. 34. His __________around the world to find happiness led him on a long and wandering journey. 35. His luxurious lifestyle and self-indulgent behavior were indicative of his __________ temperament; his brother, however, lived in __________ surroundings, getting by with little beyond the necessities. 36. Calvin Coolidge, the thirtieth U.S. president (1923–1928), was nicknamed “Silent Cal” because he was a man of few words. The adjective we might use to describe him is__________. 37. The painting depicted an __________ landscape of unspoiled beauty and simplicity. 38. I should of went is an example of a __________. 39. When the critic described the millionaire’s new home as a mausoleum, he meant that it resembled a __________. 40. A battle that is won at too great a cost is called a __________. 41. Cutting off a thief’s hand for stealing a loaf of bread is a __________ punishment. 42. When sitting in the dentist’s chair, what is the best philosophical attitude to adopt? __________ 43. A hedonist lives only for __________. 44. She told him, “let’s just be friends;” but since he wanted to get married, he was not at all interested in a __________ relationship with her. 45. He indulged his __________ tastes by ordering the best food and wine on the menu. 46. Her __________ attitude made it impossible for her to believe that anyone sincerely acted on moral principle. 47. We formed an __________ committee to deal only with that particular problem.

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48. Contemplation should take place in a__________. What is the current English usage of this word? ____________________ 49. The account of his life read like a hagiography, since it concealed all his faults and portrayed him as a __________. 50. The Apostles were __________ __________to preach the Christian Gospel. 51. The ancient Egyptian system of writing is called hieroglyphs because it was once believed that they were __________carvings. 52. A dogmatic individual wants to impose his own __________ on others. 53. Angels are the __________ of God. 54. The original meaning of hierarchy concerned the __________ __________. What is its current English usage? ____________________ 55. According to its root, moral behavior should be determined by__________. 56. As his thoughts meandered, his attention __________ from the professor’s lecture.

18 L i n g u a L at i n a E t i a m V i v i t !! (The Latin Language Still Lives!)

Bathing beauty. Fourth century CE (Piazza Armerina, Sicily)

Moth:They have been at a great feast of languages and stolen the scraps. Costard: O, they have lived long on the almsbasket of words! I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word; for thou art not so long by the head as Honorificabilitudinitatibus; thou art easier swallowed than a flapdragon. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Love’s Labour’s Lost,V.i

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We have already seen how vibrant and powerful a force Latin has been in the shaping of English vocabulary; and although it is no longer a spoken language, there are many phrases and expressions used in English that still appear in their Latin form. Latin Proverbs Latin

English Meaning

cum grano salis de gustibus non est disputandum de mortuis nil nisi bonum deo volente errare humanum est nihil sub sole novum nos morituri te salutamus vita brevis, ars longa

with a grain of salt About tastes, it ought not to be argued. About the dead, (say) nothing but good. God willing! To err is human. There’s nothing new under the sun. We who are about to die salute you. Life is short; art is long.

Measurements of Time Latin

English Meaning

ab ovo in principio ante bellum post bellum anno domini status quo pro tempore terminus ante quem terminus post quem ad infinitum per diem carpe diem tempus fugit finis

from the egg (from the beginning) in the beginning before the war after the war in the year of (our) Lord the state in which for the time (being) end before which end after which to infinity by the day Seize the day! (Enjoy the moment.) Time flies. the end

L I N G UA L AT I N A E T I A M V I V I T !

Measures and Relationships Latin

English Meaning

in toto per se quid pro quo ne plus ultra ex parte passim per capita ex post facto ad nauseam

in the whole (completely) by itself (intrinsically) something for something (one thing in return for another) not more beyond (the highest point) out of the part (on one side only) here and there by heads (by individuals) from a thing done after (subsequently) to the point of disgust

Speech and Language Latin

English Meaning

ipse dixit lapsus linguae lingua franca mirabile dictu non sequitur verbatim viva voce vox populi

he himself said slip of the tongue the Frankish tongue (the commonly spoken language) wonderful to tell it does not follow (illogical conclusion) word for word with living voice (orally) voice of the people

Drama and Theater Latin

English Meaning

dramatis personae deus ex machina in medias res exit exeunt exeunt omnes

the masks (characters) of the drama the god out of the machine (an improbable solution) in the middle of things he/she goes out they go out they all go out

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People, Places, and Things Latin

English Meaning

alma mater alter ego alumna alumnus desideratum in absentia in situ inter alia inter alios magnum opus mea culpa modus operandi modus vivendi persona non grata quid nunc rara avis sine qua non sub rosa sui generis summum bonum tabula rasa terra firma terra incognita vade mecum

nourishing mother another I foster daughter foster son that which was desired in the absence of in place among other things among other people great work my fault way of operating way of living a person not pleasing (a person not welcome) what now? (a gossip) rare bird (a rare person; one of a kind) without which not (something essential) under the table (confidentially; secretly) of its own kind (unique) highest good blank slate solid earth unknown land walk with me (guidebook; manual)

L I N G UA L AT I N A E T I A M V I V I T !

Latin Abbreviations and Words Used in Scholarly Research and Writing Latin Abbreviation or Word

English Meaning

c. or ca. (circa) cf. (confer) ed. cit. (editio citata) e.g. (exempli gratia) et al. (et alii or et alia) etc. (et cetera) et seq. (et sequens or sequentia) fl. (floruit) ibid. (ibidem) i.e. (id est) loc. cit. (loco citato) n.b. or N.B. (nota bene) op. cit. (opere citato) q.e.d. (quod erat demonstrandum) seriatim sic stet viz. (videlicet)

around compare the edition cited for (the sake of an) example and others (people or things) and the rest and following (singular or plural) he/she flourished in the same place that is in the place cited note well in the work cited that which was to be proved or shown in a series thus let it stand namely

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N A M E _______________________________________________________________________ A. Find the Latin phrase that best fills out the meaning of the sentence. 1. He lies all the time, so I would take anything he says ____________________. 2. Everyone makes mistakes; after all, ____________________. 3. I love sushi, but my husband hates raw fish. I always tell him, ___________________. 4. He was a terrible person, but now that he has died, remember: ___________________. 5. Instead of having a permanent chairperson, someone was chosen at each session to run the meeting as chairperson ____________________. 6. The agreement was made __________, and the details were confidential. 7. He said that I would get paid by the day, but I did not take the job since the __________ rate was too low. 8. Since life is short, enjoy yourself! ____________________, as the Romans used to say. 9. The years flew by, and only now do I realize ____________________. 10. I gave you this; you gave me that. It was a ____________________ agreement. 11. He repeated his argument without stopping and until I was disgusted. What are the phrases that can be used to describe his behavior and my response?

____________________ ____________________

12. I didn’t mean to say that; it was a ____________________. 13. He called himself the ____________________, but the only voice you could hear was his. 14. I can’t begin to say how remarkable it was, but ____________________, I passed the exam. 15. Nothing he said made any sense; I couldn’t understand his arguments since they were filled with ____________________. 16. The situation was awful; the only thing that could save us was a __________.

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17. Since the stage directions read exeunt omnes, __________the actors __________. 18. “Mea culpa,” he said; “it really is __________.” 19. Some believe an infant’s mind is a ____________________, on which anything can be written. 20. I behaved so badly that I knew that he would never invite me again. I had become ____________________. 21. There is no one like him. He is truly a ____________________. 22. I wandered around for hours after I got off at the wrong subway stop. I didn’t recognize anyone or anything; I was in ____________________. 23. Since the defendant was not to be located, he was tried ____________________. 24. My friend is just like me in every way; he is my ____________________. 25. I hate flying, and so I was glad to put my feet on ____________________. 26. I don’t know the exact date it happened, but it was __________ 1950. 27. Although the police did not know the identity of the bank robber, they had figured out his ____________________, since the criminal always acted in the same way. 28. I photographed the object __________ so that its exact location could be recorded. 29. I will always look back with fondness on my college years, since my __________ nourished me in many ways. 30. The action of the story began ____________________; only later did the reader find out what had happened before. 31. His way of life was not to my liking, but I realized that each of us finds our own ____________________ 32. The newspaper carried a __________ report of his speech, publishing every word. 33. After the Civil War, the South looked back on its ____________________ history. 34. I always write the words of the ancient Roman gladiators on the top of my exam paper: ______________________________

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B. Fill in the blank with an abbreviated Latin phrase: 35. There are many activities I love in the summer, __________, swimming, hiking, and sleeping in the hammock. 36. It is impossible to determine the exact date of the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, so most historians simply write, “__________ 1760.” 37. He never finished telling a story. He would begin, and then say, “__________.” 38. Frank, Mary, Susan, Joe, Harry __________ all came to the party.

Greek Vocabulary If the stem of a noun is used to form learned borrowings in English, the genitive case is given.

aner, andros (a)nh/r) = man angelos (a)/ggeloj) = messenger anthos (a)/nqoj) = flower anthropos (a)/nqrwpoj) = man anti (a)nti/) = against apo (a)po/) = from, away from apologia (a)pologi/a) = defense apostello (a)poste/llw) = send out apostrophe (a)postrofh/) = turning back arachne (a)ra/xnh) = spider arche (a)rxh/) = rule; beginning archeon (a)rxai=on) = old archon (a)/rxwn) = ruler, chief arctos (a)/rktoj) = bear argyros (a)/rguroj) = silver aristos (a)/ristoj) = best arithmos (a)riqmo/j) = number harmonia (a(rmoni/a) = joining together; harmony arteria (a)rthri/a) = windpipe aster ( a)sth/r) = star astron (a/)stron) = star athlos (a)=qloj) = contest atmos (a)tmo/j) = vapor

(A)

a- (a)-) = lack of acron (a)/kron) = topmost adelphe (a)delfh/) = sister adelphos (a)delfo/j) = brother aden (a)dh/n) = gland aegis (ai)gi/j) = shield aeon (ai)w/n) = age; long period of time aer (a)h/r) = air hagion (a(/gion) = sacred, holy ago (a)/gw) = do agon (a)gw/n) = contest; struggle agora (a)gora/) = marketplace ether (ai)qh/r) = heaven, sky hema, hematos (ai(=ma) = blood heresis (ai/(resij) = choice esthesis (ai)/sqhsij) = perception etia (ai)ti/a) = cause, reason ailuros (ai)/luroj) = cat algos (a)/lgoj) = pain amphi (a)mfi/) = around; on both sides ancyra (a)gku/ra) = anchor ana (a)na/) = up; backward; again anemos (a)/nemoj) = wind 265

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atomos (a)/tomoj) = uncut auto (au)to/) = self axioma (a)ci/wma) = theorem (B) bacterion (bakth/rion) = rod, staff baino (bai/nw) = go barbaros (ba/rbaroj) = foreign baron (ba/ro/n) = heavy basileus (basile/uj) = king biblion (bibli/on) = book biblos (bi/bloj) = book bios (bio/j) = life blastos (blasto/j) = seed botane (bota/nh) = grass, herb bous (bou=j) = cow brachy (braxu/) = short brady (bradu/) = slow bronchos (bro/gxoj) = windpipe bronte (bronth/) = thunder B

(G) gala (ga/la) = milk gamete (gameth/) = wife gametes (gameth/j) = husband gamos (gamo/j) = marriage ganglion (ga/gglion) = tumor gaster, gastros (gasth/r) = stomach ge (gh=) = earth genea (gene/a) = family genos (ge/noj) = race, family geron, gerontos (ge/rwn) = old man geusis (geu=sij) = taste gigas, gigantos (gi/gaj) = mighty glossa or glotta (glw=ssa) = tongue glycys (gluku/j) = sweet gnosis (gnw=sij) = knowledge gone (gonh/) = produce, offspring gonia (gwni/a) = angle G

gony (go/nu) = knee gramma (gra/mma) = letter grapho (gra/fw) = write gymnazo (gumna/zw) = exercise gyne, gynecos (gunh/) = woman (D) daphne (da/fnh) = laurel tree deca (de/ka) = ten decaton (de/katon) = tenth demos (dh=moj) = people dendron (de/ndron) = tree derma, dermatos (de/rma) = skin despotes (despoth/j) = master, lord deuteron (deu/teron) = second dia (dia/) = through; on account of diaphragma (dia/fragma) = partition diatribe (diatribh/) = a way of spending time; criticism didacton (didakto/n) = taught dieta (di/aita) = way of life dinon (deino/n) = terrible dioecesis (dioi/khsij) management; government dis (di/j) = twice discos (di/skoj) = plate dogma (do/gma) = teaching; decree dracon (dra/kwn) = snake, dragon drama (dra=ma) = deed, act dromos (dro/moj) = running drys, dryos (dru=j) = oak tree dynamis (du/namij) = force, power dyo (du/o) = two dys- (dus-) = bad, difficult D

(E) hebdomon (e/(bdomon) = seventh ec, ex (e)k, e)c) = out of hecaton (e(kato/n) = one hundred E

G R E E K V O C A B U L A RY

embryon (e)/mbruon) = young embryon (e)/mbruon) = young emphasis (e)/mfasij) = impression; meaning empiron (e)/mpeiron) = experienced emporion (e)mpo/rion) = market en (e)n) = in enaton (e)/naton) = ninth encephalos (e)gke/faloj) = brain encomion (e)gkw/mion) = praise encyclion (e)gkuklion) = encircling endon (e)/ndon) = within ennea (e)nne/a) = nine enteron (e)/nteron) = inside, gut entomon (e)/ntomon) = notched epi (e)pi/) or eph’ (e)f-) = on, upon; for; in addition to episcopos (e)pi/skopoj) = overseer; guardian episteme (e)pisth/mh) = knowledge ergon (e)/rgon) = work eros (e)/rwj) = desire erythron (e)ruqro/n) = red ethnos (e)/qnoj) = nation, people eu (eu)=) = well hen (e(/n) = one hepta (e(pta/) = seven herpo (e(/rpw) = creep, crawl heteron (e(/teron) = other hex (e(/c) = six (Z) zoon (zw=on) = living being zyme (zu/mh) = leaven Z

hemera (h(me/ra) = day hemi- (h(mi-) = half hepar, hepatos (h(=par) = liver ethos (h)=qoj) = custom; behavior (TH) thanatos (qa/natoj) = death theatron (qe/atron) = place of seeing theoria (qewri/a) = spectacle; contemplation theos (qe/oj) = god therapia (qerapei/a) = service thermos (qermo/j) = warm thesauros (qhsauro/j) = treasury thrix, trichos (qri/c) = hair thronos (qro/noj) = seat, chair thyreos (qureo/j) = shield Q

(I) iatros (i)atro/j) = doctor ichthys (i)xqu/j) = fish icon (ei)kw/n) = image, likeness idea (i)de/a) = form, class, kind idion (i)/dion) = one’s own; private idiotes (i)diw/thj) = private citizen hieron (i(ero/n) = sacred, holy ion (i/)on) = going hippos (i(/ppoj) = horse ison (i)/son) = equal histemi (i(/sthmi) = make stand historia (i(stori/a) = inquiry histos (i(sto/j) = web I

(K, C) cacon (kako/n) = bad canon (kanw/n) = rule; standard cardia (kardi/a) = heart cata (kata/) or cath- (kaq-) = down, away; against; concerning K

(E) hedone (h(donh/) = pleasure electron (h)/lektron) = amber helios (h(/lioj) = sun helix (h(/lic) = spiral H

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catharsis (ka/qarsij) = cleansing; purification cephale (kefalh/) = head ceramia (keramei/a) = pottery kineo (kine/w) = move kinesis (ki/nhsij) = movement cithara (kiqa/ra) = lyre, lute clima (kli/ma) = zone, region cline (kli/nh) = bed; couch clōn (klw/n) = twig colon (ko/lon) = colon cōlon (kw=lon) = member coma (kw=ma) = deep sleep comma (ko/mma) = that which is cut off comoedia (kwm%dia) = comedy comos (kw=moj) = revel; merrymaking cosmos (ko/smoj) = order cratos (kra/toj) = strength; rule creas (kre/aj) = flesh, meat crino (kri/nw) = separate, distinguish crisis (kri/sij) = decision, trial; dispute crypton (krupto/n) = hidden cyanon (ku/anon) = blue cybernetes (kubernh/thj) = pilot, governor cyclos (ku/kloj) = circle cymbalon (ku/mbalon) = cymbal cyon, cynos ((ku/wn) = dog cystis (kustij) = bladder cytos (ku/toj) = hollow, vessel (L) leon (le/wn) = lion lethargos (lh/qargoj) = forgetful leptos (lepto/j) = slender leucon (leuko/n) = white limne (li/mnh) = lake lithos (li/qoj) = stone logos (lo/goj) = word; thought; study lysis (lu/sij) = loosening, untying L

(M) macron (makro/n) = large malacon (malako/n) = soft mania (mani/a) = madness manthano (manqa/nw) = learn martys, martyros (ma/rtuj) = witness mater (mh/thr) = mother mathesis (ma/qhsij) = learning mechane (mhxanh/) = device, machine megas, megalos (mega/j) = very large melas, melanos (me/laj) = black melodia (mel%di/a) = song meson (me/son) = middle meta (meta/) or meth- (meq-) = with; after, beyond; change metabole (metabolh/) = change meteoron (mete/wron) = raised in the air methodos (me/qodoj) = pursuit methy (me/qu) = wine metron (me/tron) = measure miasma (mi/asma) = stain, pollution micron (mikro/n) = small mimesis (mi/mhsij) = representation; imitation miseo (mise/w) = hate mneme (mnh/mh) = memory molybdos (mo/lubdoj) = lead monon (mo/non) = single, only moron (mw=ron) = foolish morphe (morfh/) = shape, form musice (musikh/) = art of the Muses myelos (muelo/j) = marrow myrias, myriados (muri/aj) = 10,000 mys (mu=j) = muscle mythos (mu=qoj) = story M

(N) necros (nekro/j) = corpse neon (ne/on) = new N

G R E E K V O C A B U L A RY

nephros (nefro/j) = kidney neuron (neu=ron) = nerve nomicon (nomiko/n) = of the law nomos (no/moj) = law; rule nymphe (nu/mfh) = maiden (X) xenos (ce/noj) = stranger, foreigner xeron (chro/n) = dry xylon (cu/lon) = wood; material C

(O) octo (o)ktw/) = eight hodos (o(do/j) = road odous, odontos (o)dou/j) = tooth odyne (o)du/nh) = pain ogdoon (o)/gdoon) = eighth ecos (oi)=koj) = house ecumene (oik)oumenh/) = inhabited world oligoi (o)li/goi) = few homeon (o(moi=on) = similar hom*on (o(mo/n) = same onyma (o)/numa) = name ophthalmos (o)fqalmo/j) = eye opsis (o)/yij) = sight, view opteuo (o)pteu/w) = look at, see orchestra (o)rxh/stra) = dancing stage orexis (o)/recij) = appetite organon (o/)rganon) = instrument, tool; bodily organ hormao (o(rma/w) = excite, stimulate ornis, ornithos (o)/rnij) = bird oros, oreos (o)/roj) = mountain orthon (o)rqo/n) = straight osteon (o)ste/on) = bone ostracon (o)/strakon) = tile ous, otos (ou)=j) = ear O

269

(P) pachy (paxu/) = thick paean (paia/n) = song of thanksgiving to Apollo, god of healing paleon (palai=on) = old pan, pantos (pa=n) = all pancreas (pa/gkreaj) = sweetbread papyros (pa/puroj) = papyrus plant para (para/) = beside; contrary to; irregular; beyond parabole (parabolh/) = comparison paradigma (para/deigma) = pattern paragraphe (paragrafh/) = anything written beside; slash mark parenthesis (pare/nqesij) = insertion pascho (pa/sxw) = suffer, endure pater (path/r) = father pathos (pa/qoj) = suffering, condition pedia (paidei/a) = education pente (pe/nte) = five pepto (pe/ptw) = soften, cook peri (peri/) = around, about, near periodos (peri/odoj) = going around pes, pedos (pai=j) = child petros (pe/troj) = stone pithecos (pi/qhkoj) = monkey planetes (planh/thj) = wanderer, planet plasticon (plastiko/n) = molded platy (platu/) = broad, wide plege (plhgh/) = blow plethora (plhqw/ra) = fullness pleura (pleu=ra) = side; rib pneo (pne/w) = breathe pneumon (pneumw/n) = lung poietes (poihth/j) = maker, poet polemos (po/lemoj) = war polis (poli/j) = city-state poly (polu/) = many potamos (potamo/j) = river P

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G R E E K V O C A B U L A RY

pous, podos (pou/j) = foot pragma (pra=gma) = business; matter praxis (pra=cij) = transaction, doing presbys (pre/sbuj) = old pro (pro/) = before; in front of pros (pro/j) = to, toward; in addition to proton (prw=ton) = first pteron (ptero/n) = wing pyloros (pulwro/j) = gatekeeper pyr, pyros (pu=r) = fire (R) rheo (r(e/w) = flow rhetor (r(h/twr) = speaker rhis, rhinos (r(i/j) = nose R

(S) sacchar (sa/kxar) = sugar sarx, sarcos (sa/rc) = flesh sauros (sau=roj) = lizard scene (skhnh/) = tent; stage backdrop schema (sxh=ma) = form, shape schole (sxolh/) = leisure scleron (sklhro/n) = hard scopeo (skope/w) = look at sideros (si/dhroj) = iron skeletos (skeleto/j) = dried up soma, somatos (sw=ma) = body sophia (sofi/a) = wisdom sophistes (sofisth/j) = expert, teacher sperma (spe/rma) = seed sphera (sfai=ra) = ball sphongos (sfo/ggoj) = sponge stadion (sta/dion) = racecourse stereon (stereo/n) = solid, firm sthenos (sqe/noj) = strength stoa (stoa/) = cloister, colonnade stoma, stomatos (sto/ma) = mouth S

strategos (strathgo/j) = general symposion (sumpo/sion) = drinking party syn (su/n) or sym- (sum-) = with synthesis (su/nqesij) = putting together systema (su/sthma) = whole; composition (T) tachys (taxu/j) = rapid, swift tauros (tau=roj) = bull techne (te/xnh) = skill, art tele (th=le) = at a distance tessara or tettara (te/ssara) = four tithemi (ti/qhmi) = put, place tomos (tomo/j) = cutting topos (to/poj) = place trachea (traxei=a) = rough tragoedia (trag%di/a) = tragedy (literally, goat song) trapeza (tra/peza) = table trauma, traumatos (trau=ma) = wound tris (trei=j) = three triton (tri/ton) = third tropos (tro/poj) = turn; way, manner trophe (trofh/) = nourishment tympanon (tu/mpanon) = drum typos (tu/poj) = mark; model, outline tyrannos (tu/rannoj) = absolute ruler T

(U, Y) hybris (u(/brij) = pride, arrogance hydor, hydatos (u(/dwr) = water hygieia (u(gi/eia) = health hygron (u(gro/n) = moisture hyle (u(/lh) = matter hymnos (u(/mnoj) = song of praise hyper (u(pe/r) or hyph- (u(f-) = above; excessively hyphen (u(fe/n) = in one U

G R E E K V O C A B U L A RY

hypnos (u(/pnoj) = sleep hypo (u(po/) or hyph- (u(f-) = below; deficient hypocrites (u(pokrith/j) = actor hystera (u(ste/ra) = uterus (PH) phagein (fa*gei=n) = eat phalanx (fa/lagc) = phalanx pharmacon (fa/rmakon) = drug; poison pharynx (fa/rugc) = throat pheno (fai/nw) = seem, appear; shine pheno- (learned borrowing) = shining phenomenon (faino/menon) = a thing come to light phero (fe/rw) = bear, carry philia (fili/a) = love phlegma (fle/gma) = phlegm phleps, phlebos (fle/y) = vein phobos (fo/boj) = fear phone (fonh/) = sound phos, photos (fw=j) = light phren (frh/n) = midriff phyllon (fu/llon) = leaf phylon (fu=lon) = race, tribe; class physis (fu/sij) = nature F

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(CH) chalcos (xalko/j) = copper chaos (xao/j) = void character (xarakth/r) = mark charisma (xa/risma) = grace chartes (xa/rthj) = papyrus roll chemeia (xhmei/a) = alloying chilioi (xi/lioi) = one thousand chloros (xlw=roj) = green cholae (xolai/) = gall bladder chole (xolh/) = bile choreuo (xoreu/w) = dance in a circle christos (xristo/j) = anointed chroma, chromatos (xrw=ma) = color chronos (xro/noj) = time chrysos (xruso/j) = gold X

(PS) pseudon (yeu=don) = false psyche (yuxh/) = soul Y

(O) oceanos (w)keano/j) = ocean, the great river believed to encircle the earth on, ontos (w)/n) = being W

Latin Vocabulary

amo-amare-amatum = love amor, amoris = love anima, animae = breath animal, animalis = living being animus, animi = spirit, courage annus, anni = year ante = before apis, apis = bee aqua, aquae = water arbitror-arbitrari-arbitratum = think arbor, arboris = tree architectura, architecturae = art of building ardeo-ardēre = burn area, areae = area arena, arenae = sandy place; arena argentum, argenti = silver ars, artis = skill, art astrum, astri = star atrium, atrii = entry hall audeo-audēre = dare audio-audire-auditum = hear augeo-augēre-auctum = increase augur, auguris = seer, prophet

A ab, a = from, away from abdomen, abdominis = stomach abhorreo-abhorrēre = shrink back acer, acris = sharp ad = to, toward adolesco-adolescerere-adultum = grow up aedes, aedis = room aedificium, aedificii = building aequum, aequi = equal aer, aeris = air aestas, aestatis = summer aevum, aevi = age; period of time ager, agri = field agro- = soil, crop ago-agere-actum = do, drive alacer, alacris = brisk, quick album, albi = white alias = at another time alibi = in another place alo-alere-altum = nourish ambitio, ambitionis = going around ambo = both amicus, amici = friend 273

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L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

auris, auris = ear aurum, auri = gold auspex, auspicis = diviner; protector autumnus, autumni = fall auxilium, auxilii = aid avarum-avari = greedy aveo-avēre = be well avis, avis = bird B bacillus, bacilli = little staff baculum, baculi = staff, walking stick bellum, belli = war bene = well bilis, bilis = bile bis = twice bonun, boni = good brevis, brevis = short C cado-cadere-casum = fall caecum, caeci = blind caedo-caedere-caesum = cut; kill caeruleus, caerulei = blue calculus, calculi = pebble calor, caloris = warmth, heat camera, camerae = chamber, room campus, campi = field candeo-candēre = shine candesco-candescere = begin to shine canis, canis = dog canto-cantare-cantatum = sing capio-capere-captum = take, seize caput, capitis = head caro, carnis = flesh castum, casti = pure cedo-cedere-cessum = yield, go cella, cellae = small room

censeo-censēre-censum = assess censor, censoris = censor centum = one hundred cerebrum, cerebri = brain charta, chartae = map cilium, cilii = eyelash circa = around (approximately) circum = around (distance) civis, civis = citizen civitas, civitatis = state clamo-clamare-clamatum = shout clarum, clari = clear, bright claudo-claudere-clausum = close clavus, clavi = key clemens, clementis = gentle, mild coalesco-coalescere-coalitum = grow together; become one codex, codicis = book cohors, cohortis = enclosure collegium, collegii = corporation, group collum, colli = neck colo-colere-cultum = cultivate, till colonia, coloniae = estate; settlement color, coloris = color communis, communis = common computo-computare-computatum = sum up, calculate congredior-congredi-congressum = meet consul, consulis = consul contagio, contagionis = touching contra = against conus, coni = cone copia, copiae = supply, abundance cornu, cornus = horn corona, coronae = crown corpus, corporis = body cors, cordis = heart costa, costae = rib

L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

cras = tomorrow credo-credere-creditum = believe creo-creare-creatum = bring forth cresco-crescere-cretum = arise crimen, criminis = crime cubiculum, cubiculi = bedroom cubo-cubare-cubitum = lie down culpa, culpae = fault, blame cum = with; together cumulus, cumuli = pile, heap cupido, cupidinis = desire cuprum, cupri = copper cura, curae = care curro-currere-cursum = run custos, custodis = guard cutis, cutis = skin D de = from; concerning, about debeo-debēre-debitum = owe decem = ten decimus, decimi = tenth decus, decoris = ornament; honor deformis, deformis = ugly deleo-delēre-deletum = destroy delinquo-delinquere-delictum = fail dens, dentis = tooth despicio-despicere-despectum = look down on; despise deus, dei = god dexter, dexteri = on the right; favorable dico-dicere-dictum = say, speak dies, diei = day digero-digerere–digestum = carry away digitus, digiti = finger, toe dignitas, dignitatis = worth, merit dis- = apart disciplina, disciplinae = instruction

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disco-discere = learn divido-dividere-divisum = separate divortium, divortii = divorce divus, divi = divine do-dare-datum = give doceo-docēre-doctum = teach, show doctrina, doctrinae = teaching dominor-dominari-dominatum = rule dominus, domini = master domus, domūs = house dormio-dormire-dormitum = sleep duco-ducere-ductum = lead duo = two duodeni = twelve E edo-edere-esum = eat edo-edere-editum = bring forth educo-educare-educatum = bring up, rear; educate effervesco-effervescere = boil up, foam ego, mei = I eques, equitis = horseman, knight equus, equi = horse erro-errare-erratum = wander erudio-erudire-eruditum = polish (sum)-esse-futurum = be, exist ex, e = out, out of examino-examinare-examinatum = weigh, consider; test experior-experiri-expertum = try, test exter, exteri = outside extra = outside of F fabula, fabulae = story facio-facere-factum = make, do in compounds, -ficio, -fectum

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L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

facultas, facultatis = skill fallo-fallere-falsum = deceive fama, famae = reputation, rumor familia, familiae = family fascis, fascis = stick fateor-fatēre-fasum = confess, admit felis, felis = cat felix, felicis = happy femina, feminae = woman fenestra, fenestrae = window fermentum, fermenti = yeast fero-ferre-latum = carry, bear ferrum, ferri = iron ferveo-fervēre = boil fetus, fetūs = offspring fibula, fibulae = clamp, pin fides, fidei = faith fiducia, fiduciae = confidence, trust filia, filiae = daughter filius, filli = son finio-finire-finitum = end, finish fiscus, fisci = basket; treasury flecto-flectere-flectum = bend flo-flare-flatum = flow flumen, fluminis = river fluo-fluere = flow floreo-florēre = bloom, prosper flos, floris = flower fodio-fodere-fossum = dig folium, folii = leaf for-fari-fatum = speak forma, formae = shape, beauty formica, formicae = ant fortis, fortis = brave fortuna, fortunae = fortune, chance forum, fori = outdoors; forum fossa, fossae = ditch frango-frangere-fractum = break frater, fratris = brother

fraus, fraudis = trick, deceit fulmen, fulminis = lightning fundus, fundi = depth, bottom fungor-fungi-functum = perform fungus, fungi = mushroom furor, furoris = madness, rage G gens, gentis = people, tribe genu, genūs = knee genus, generis = class, kind gero-gere-gestum = bear, carry; wage glacies, glaciei = ice gladius, gladii = sword glans, glandis = acorn gnosco-gnoscere-gnotum = come to know gradior-gradi-gressum = walk, go gratum, grati = pleasing gravis, gravis = heavy grex, gregis = flock, herd gubernator, gubernatoris = pilot H haereo-haerēre-haesum = stick, cling heres, heredis = heir hiatus, hiatūs = opening, cleft hibernus, hiberni = wintry hom*o, hominis = man hora, horae = hour horreo-horrēre = shudder hortor-hortari-hortatum = urge hospes, hospitis = host, guest; stranger hostis, hostis = enemy hybrida = mixed breed I id = it idem = same ignis, ignis = fire

L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

ileum, ilei = flank imago, imaginis = image, copy imbecillum, imbecilli = weak imperium, imperii = power, command impero-imperare-imperatum = order in = in, into in- = not inauguro-inaugurare-inauguratum = take signs from the flight of birds individuum, individui = not separable inertia, inertiae = laziness infamia, infamiae = dishonor, disgrace ingenium, ingenii = inborn characteristic inimicus, inimici = unfriendly insania, insaniae = madness insectum, insecti = notched, cut insula, insulae = island intellego-intellegere-intellectum = grasp, understand; distinguish inter = between intestinum, intestini = inward, internal intra = within iter, itineris = route; journey J jacio-jacere-jactum = throw, hurl jejunum, jejuni = arid, dry judex, judicis = judge jugulum, juguli = throat jungo-jungere-junctum = join jus, juris = law juvenis, juvenis = youth L labor-laborari-laboratum = work labor-labi-lapsum = slip lac, lactis = milk lacus, lacūs = lake lapis, lapidus = stone

lascivum, lascivi = playful, wanton legio, legionis = legion lego-legere-lectum = choose, read lenis, lenis = smooth, soft; mild levis, levis = light levo-levare-levatum = lift lex, legis = law liber, liberi = free liber, libri = book libero-liberare-liberatum = set free libertas, libertatis = freedom libido, libidinis = desire, longing ligo-ligare-ligatum = tie limen, liminis = threshold lingua, linguae = tongue liquidum, liquidi = melted liquor-liqui = flow, melt littera, litterae = letter; literature (pl.) loquor-loqui-locutum = speak lucrum, lucri = profit, advantage ludo-ludere-lusum = play; mock ludus, ludi = game, sport lumen, luminis = light luna, lunae = moon lux, lucis = light luxuria, luxuriae = excess lympha, lymphae = water; fluid M magister, magistri = teacher (male) and magistra, magistrae (female) magnus, magni = large major, majoris = larger malum, mali = bad mando-mandare-mandatum = order manus, manūs = hand mappa, mappae = cloth, napkin; map mare, maris = sea margo, marginis = edge

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L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

maritus, mariti = husband mater, matris = mother materia, materiae = substance, matter matrimonium, matrimonii = marriage matrona, matronae = married woman maximum, maximi = greatest, largest medicus, medici = doctor medium, medii = middle; in the open melior, melioris = better memor, memoris = mindful mendax, mendacis = lying mens, mentis = mind mensis, mensis = month mercor-mercari-mercatum = buy mereor-merēri-meritum = earn, deserve mergo-mergere-mersum = sink, dive into merx, mercis = goods, wares miles, militis = soldier mille = thousand minimum, minimi = least minor, minoris = smaller minus = less miror-mirari-miratum = wonder at mitto-mittere-missum = send modus, modi = measure; manner moles, molis = mass moneo-monēre-monitum = warn mons, montis = mountain monumentum, monumenti = monument mordeo-mordēre-morsum = bite morior-mori-mortuum = die mors, mortis = death mos, moris = custom; character (pl.) moveo-movēre-motum = move multus, multi = much (pl., many) mundus, mundi = world municipium, municipii = town munus, muneris = office, duty; reward

murus, muri = wall mus, muris = mouse muto-mutare-mutatum = change N nascor-nasci-natum = be born nasus, nasi = nose natura, naturae = nature nauta, nautae = sailor navis, navis = ship nebula, nebulae = cloud negotium, negotii = business nervus, nervi = nerve neutrum, neutri = neither niger, nigri = black nihil = nothing nimbus, nimbi = cloud nix, nivis = snow nomen, nominis = name nomino-nominare-nominatum = name non = not nonus, noni = ninth novem = nine novum, novi = new nox, noctis = night nubo-nubere-nuptum = marry nucleus, nuclei = kernel nullus, nullius = none numerus, numeri = number nuntio-nuntiare-nuntiatum = announce nupta, nuptae = bride nutrio-nutrire-nutritum = feed, nourish; raise nux, nucis = nut O ob = to; against obsolesco-obsolescere-obsoletum = wear out, decay

L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

octavus, octavi = eighth octo = eight oculus, oculi = eye odium, odii = hatred omen, ominis = omen omnis, omnis = every, all ops, opis = wealth optimum, optimi = best opto-optare-optatum = hope for opus, operis = work ordo, ordinis = rank, order origo, originis = source, beginning orior-oriri-ortum = rise oro-orare-oratum = speak; pray os, oris = mouth os, ossis = bone otium, otii = leisure P pagus, pagi = country district pars, partis = part patella, patellae = small pan; kneecap pater, patris = father patior-pati-passum = suffer, endure pauci = few pax, pacis = peace pecco-peccare-peccatum = sin peculium, peculii = private property pecunia, pecuniae = money pejor, pejoris = worse pello-pellere-pulsum = strike pendo-pendere-pensum = hang per = through percutio-percutire-percussum = strike, push periculum, periculi = danger persona, personae = mask pes, pedis = foot pessimum, pessimi = worst

279

peto-petere-petitum = seek, strive; ask for pigmentum, pigmenti = color pingo-pingere-pictum = represent, paint pinna, pinnae = feather; wings piscis, piscis = fish pituita, pituitae = phlegm plagio-plagiare-plagiatum = steal planus = even, level plaudo-plaudere-plausum = strike; clap plebs, plebis = the common people plico-plicare-plicatum = fold plumbum, plumbi = lead plus, pluris = more pluvia, pluviae = rain poeta, poetae = poet pono-ponere-positum = put, place pontifex, pontificis = priest populus, populi = people porta, portae = door portentum, portenti = omen, sign porto-portare-portatum = carry post = after postulo-postulare-postulatum = demand, claim; request potens, potentis = powerful potentia, potentiae = power, force potio-potionis = drink prae = before praesto = ready, available premo-premere-pressum = press pretium, pretii = price primum, primi = first princeps, principis = chief, leader proficio-proficere-profectum = gain, be of use; make headway profiteor-profitēri-professum = declare openly; announce proles, prolis = children, descendants

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L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

propago-propagare-propagatum = extend, enlarge proprium, proprii = one’s own prurio-prurire-pruritum = itch, burn pudeo-pudēre-puditum = feel shame pungo-pungere-punctum = pierce, bite puer, pueri = boy, child pugno-pugnare-pugnatum = fight pulchrum, pulchri = beautiful pulmo, pulmonis = lung pungo-pungere-punctum = pierce; sting pupa, pupae = little girl pupus, pupi = little boy puto-putare-putatum = think, consider Q quaero-quaerere-quaesitum = seek, ask qualis, qualis = of what sort quantum, quanti = how much quartum, quarti = fourth quasi = as if quattuor = four quiesco-quiescere-quietum = rest quinque = five quintum, quinti = fifth quot = how many? R radix, radicis = root rapio-rapere-raptum = seize in compounds = -ripere, -reptum rarum, rari = rare ratio, rationis = plan; reason recipio-recipere-receptum = take back rectum, recti = straight rego-regere-rectum = rule religio, religionis = religion remedium, remedii = cure

renum, reni = kidney reptilis, reptilis = crawling repudium, repudii = divorce retro = back, backward revertor-reverti-reversum = turn back rex, regis = king rigeo-rigēre = grow hard rubrum, rubri = red rudis, rudis = rough, uncultivated rumpo-rumpere-ruptum = break rus, ruris = countryside S saccus, sacci = purse sacrum, sacri = holy saeculum, saeculi = generation sal, salis = salt salax, salacis = lustful salus, salutis = health sanctum, sancti = holy sanguis, sanguinis = blood sanum, sani = healthy scio-scire-scitum = know scribo-scribere-scriptum = write sculpo-sculpere-sculptum = form, fashion seco-secare-sectum = cut secundum, secundi = second sedeo-sedēre-sessum = sit sem*n, seminis = seed semi = half senatus, senatūs = senate senesco-senescere = grow old senex, senis = old man sentio-sentire-sensum = feel septem = seven septimum, septimi = seventh sequor-sequi-secutum = follow serpo-serpere-serptum = crawl

L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

servio-servire-servitum = serve servo-servare-servatum = protect; keep servus, servi = slave sesqui = one and a half sex = six sextum, sexti = sixth signum, signi = sign, seal silva, silvae = forest simia, simiae = monkey sine = without sinister, sinistri = on the left; unfavorable situs, sitūs = place socius, socii = ally, companion sol, solis = sun solidum, solidi = firm, dense solus, solius = alone, only solvo-solvere-solutum = loosen, untie somnus, somni = sleep sono-sonare-sonatum = sound sopor, soporis = deep sleep soror, sororis = sister species, speciei = view, appearance specio-specere = look at specto-spectare-spectatum = observe spero-sperare-speratum = hope spiro-spirare-spiratum = breathe spondeo-spondēre-sponsum = promise stella, stellae = star statuo-statuere-statutum = set up sto-stare-statum = stand stomachus, stomachi = stomach stringo-stringere-strictum = bind; cut off struo-struere-structum = build; arrange studeo-studēre = be eager for stupeo-stupēre = be stunned, be amazed suadeo-suadēre-suasum = advise, urge sub = under sum-esse-futurum = be; exist

summum, summi = highest sumo-sumere-sumptum = obtain, buy super = above (preposition) superior, superioris = higher supremus, supremi = highest T tango-tangere-tactum = touch taxo-taxare-taxatum = charge; rate tego-tegere-tectum = cover tempestas, tempestatis = storm templum, templi = temple tempus, temporis = time teneo-tenēre-tentum = hold tergum, tergi = back termino-terminare-terminatum = end terra, terrae = land terreo-terrēre = frighten tertius, tertii = third testor-testari-testatum = show; witness texo-texere-textum = weave tibia, tibiae = flute; shinbone timeo-timēre = be afraid tolero-tolerare-toleratum = bear, carry traho-trahere-tractum = drag trans = across tres = three tribunus, tribuni = tribune tribuo-tribuere-tributum = give, pay tuba, tubae = trumpet tueor-tueri-tuitum = watch; protect turba, turbae = crowd turpis, turpis = wicked tutor, tutoris = guardian, protector U ulterior, ulterioris = farther ultimus, ultimi = farthest, last

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L A T I N V O C A B U L A RY

ultra = beyond unum, unius = one urbs, urbis = city ursus, ursi = bear usura, usurae = interest utor-uti-usum = use, employ uxor, uxoris = wife V vacca, vaccae = cow vaco-vacare-vacatum = be empty valeo-valēre = be strong vapor, vaporis = gas, vapor varius, varii = different vas, vasis = vessel veho-vehere-vectum = carry, drive velox, velocis = fast vena, venae = vein venio-venire-ventum = come ventus, venti = wind ver, veris = spring verbum, verbi = word verso-versare-versatum = turn verto-vertere-versum = turn

verum, veri = true vestigium, vestigii = footprint, trace vestio-vestire-vestitutm = dress, cover vestis, vestis = clothing vetus, veteris = old via, viae = way, road vicinia, viciniae = neighborhood video-vidēre-visum = see villa, villae = farmhouse vinco-vincere-victum = conquer vir, viri = man viridis, viridis = green virtus, virtutis = manliness; excellence virus, viri = poison vita, vitae = life vivo-vivere-victum = live voco-vocare-vocatum = call volvo-volvere-volutum = turn voro-vorare-voratum = eat votum, voti = vow vox, vocis = voice vulgus, vulgi = crowd vulnus, vulneris = wound

About the Author

TAMARA M. GREEN is professor of classics and chair of the Department of Classical and Oriental Studies at Hunter College of the City University of New York.

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The Greek and Latin Roots of English - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

FAQs

Does English have Greek and Latin roots? ›

The English language uses many Greek and Latin roots, stems, and prefixes. These roots are listed alphabetically on three pages: Greek and Latin roots from A to G.

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What are some Greek root words in the English language? ›

Common Greek roots

Greek Root	Definition	Examples
bio	life	biology, biography
chron	time	chronological, chronic
dyna	power	dynamic, dynamite
dys	bad; hard; unlucky	dysfunctional, dyslexic

25 more rows

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Why most of the English words derived from Latin and Greek? ›

Many Greek words would eventually come into English only because they had been borrowed by speakers of Latin. Similarly, vast amounts of Latin vocabulary entered English through French—and to a much lesser extent through Italian or Spanish.

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How much of English has Greek roots? ›

Indeed, it has been claimed that as many as 150,000 words in Modern English have their roots in the Ancient Greek language. By some calculations, that's 30% of the English language! 5% of these words are directly borrowed from Greek, while another 25% are borrowed indirectly, mainly through Latin.

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Is English mostly Latin or Greek? ›

Although English is a Germanic language, it has Latin influences. Its grammar and core vocabulary are inherited from Proto-Germanic, but a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources.

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What is harder Greek or Latin? ›

Learning Latin is (generally speaking*) easier than Greek; you don't need to learn a new alphabet, and if you know a little bit of Italian, French or Spanish, you might recognize some of the words. Even English has, because of the large influence of French, many words whose roots can be traced back to Latin.

How to tell if a word is Greek? ›

In some cases, a word's spelling clearly shows its Greek origin: If it includes ph pronounced as /f/ or y between consonants, it is very likely Greek, with some exceptions, such as nephew, cipher, triumph.

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Is English more Germanic or Latin? ›

English vocabulary comprises 29% French, 29% Latin, 26% Germanic, and 6% Greek.

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Did German come from Latin? ›

The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share is partly derived from Latin and Greek, along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English.

The Greek and Latin Roots of English - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

FAQs

Does English have Greek and Latin roots? ›

How to tell if a word is Greek? ›